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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
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Basic science experiences for retarded groups at the ninth and tenth grade level.
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Basic science experiences for retarded groups at the ninth and tenth grade level.
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BASIC SCIENCE EXPERIENCES FOR RETARDED GROUPS AT THE NINTH AND TENTH GRADE DEVEL A P r o j e c t P r e s e n te d t o th e F a c u lt y o f th e S c h o o l o f E d u c a tio n The U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e r n C a l i f o r n ia In P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t o f th e R e q u ir e m e n ts f o r t h e D eg ree M a ster o f S c ie n c e i n E d u c a tio n fey Tom F r e d e r ik N i e ls e n Jan u ary 1 9 5 9 UMI Number: EP49659 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Pi-bi.sh»ng UMI EP49659 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 Ed 'S 1 pra^ This project report, written*under the direction of the candidate's adviser and approved hy him, has been presented to and accepted by the faculty of the School of Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Education. Adviser TABLE OF CONTENTS CHAPTER PAGE PART I INTRODUCTION I . PROBLEMS AND DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED . . . . 2 The p r o b le m . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3 S ta te m e n t o f th e p rob lem .......................... 3 Im p o rta n ce o f th e p r o b le m ......................... 3 L im it a t io n s o f th e p ro b lem ..................... Ij. D e f i n i t i o n s o f t e r m s ,u s e d . • • • • • • • • • fj B a s ic s c i e n c e e x p e r i e n c e s . » • • • • • • . % P o in t 1 p ro g ra m . ......................... 5 R e ta rd ed s t u d e n t s . .......................................... 6 P r o j e c t g ro u p s ................................................................... 6 M ethod o f p r o c e d u r e . . . . ..................................... 7 O r g a n iz a tio n o f th e s t u d y ......................... 8 I I . REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE ......................... 9 P u rp ose o f e d u c a t i o n ........................... . .. .. 10 P u r p o se s o f se c o n d a r y e d u c a t io n . • ..................... 11 C o n s id e r a t io n s i n t e a c h in g r e ta r d e d s t u d e n t s ............................................................. 12 S h o u ld b a s i c s c i e n c e e x p e r ie n c e s be a tte m p te d w ith r e t a r d e d g r o u p s ? . • • • • 12 What e x p e r ie n c e s s h o u ld b e in c lu d e d ? . . . l!|. l i i CHAPTER PAGE What i s th e b e s t p r o c e d u r e f o r t e a c h i n g ? * .............................. . . .............................. . 1 5 What i s th e h e a r t o f a good s c i e n c e program ? • ••••••••••••••• l 6 S h o u ld te a c h in g h e done w it h i l l u s t r a t i o n s and d e m o n s tr a tio n s ? * • . . 17 S h o u ld t e a c h in g b e d on e w it h r e a d in g and r e c i t a t i o n ? . * . . . . . . . 17 I n t e l l i g e n c e d e f in e d .. .. .. ......................... 18 The n a tu r e o f i n t e l l i g e n c e * • • • • • • • 18 Growth o f i n t e l l i g e n c e » * « * . * * • • * 19 V e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l grow th o f i n t e l l i g e n c e * .......................... . . ......................... 2 0 H o r iz o n t a l g ro w th l i m i t e d . . . . . . . . . 2 0 The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f i n t e l l i g e n c e * . . . . 21 C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f t h e m e n t a lly r e ta r d e d s t u d e n t . .. • •• • • • • . • • « • « . 21 H eeds o f m e n t a lly r e t a r d e d s t u d e n t s . • • • • 22 H eed f o r a m o d if ie d c u r r ic u lu m • • • • • • • 23 Summary. . . . ...................... 23 BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR PART I . . . . . . . ..................................... 26 CHAPTER PART I I BASIC SCIENCE EXPERIENCES FOR RETARDED STUDENTS INTRODUCTION TO PART I I ...................................................* . * . R ocks and s o i l * * ..................................... . . . . E x p e r ie n c e No* 1* S tu d y in g a s i n g l e r o c k • • « • * • • • • * * • • * * • • E x p e r ie n c e No* 2* E xam in in g san d w it h a m a g n ify in g g l a s s * • • • • • • « * • E x p e r ie n c e No* 3* Cem ent m akes man-made r o c k * ............................. • • • • • * • • * • E x p e r ie n c e No* If. To show th e d i f f e r e n c e s i n s o i l p a r t i c l e s * • • • • E x p e r ie n c e No* show t h a t s o i l may c o n t a in w a te r* . • • • • • • * • • • • E x p e r ie n c e No* 6 * Why i s th e s o i l t h a t i s on to p so n e c e s s a r y ? ..................... * . • The p l a n t s arou n d u s ................................... • * • • E x p e r ie n c e N o. 1* How to grow r o o t h a i r s * ......................................................... E x p e r ie n c e No* 2* Do r o o t s a b so rb w a te r and su sp e n d e d s o l i d s ? * * • • • • • • • E x p e r ie n c e No* 3* How d o e s w a te r g e t t o th e to p o f t r e e s ? « * • * • • * • • PACE I 33 3k 3 5 I 3 5 3 5 3 5 3 5 3 6 37 38 3 8 3 8 CHAPTER V PAGE E x p e r ie n c e Ho* Ij.* How a r e r o o t s a f f e c t e d b y w a t e r ? ..................... ......................... ..... 38 E x p e r ie n c e Ho* 5* G erm in a tin g p o l l e n g r a in s • * * * . 3 8 E x p e r ie n c e Ho* 6* What i s b a c t e r i a ? * • • 39 Our w e a th e r* * * * . 4 0 E x p e r ie n c e Ho* 1* How much d id i t r a i n to d a y ? * * « ip. E x p e r ie n c e Mo* 2* What a r e te m p e r a tu r e s ? . « l+i E x p e r ie n c e Ho* 3* D oes a i r exp an d when h e a te d ? • • l+i E x p e r ie n c e Ho* ij.* How d o e s m o is tu r e g e t i n t o a ir ? * . l+i E x p e r ie n c e Ho* Where d o e s m o is t u r e go? . • 1+2 E x p e r ie n c e Ho* 6* D oes ou r b r e a th c o n t a in m o is tu r e ? * • • « • • • • • * • • 1+2 E x p e r ie n c e Ho* 7# Why d o e s i t r a in ? * . • 1+2 E x p e r ie n c e Ho* 8* What d o e s warm a i r do?* • . • . 1+2 Our sun and i t s p la n e t s * * * * . . . . . . • i+4 E x p e r ie n c e Ho* 1 . How d o e s th e moon move arou n d th e e a r th ? * • • . • • • • * 1+5 CHAPTEB I. I v i PAGE I E x p e r ie n c e No* 2* What i s d a y and n ig h t ? « . 4 5 E x p e r ie n c e No* 3* I s i t a l l th e 4 5 E x p e r ie n c e No* 1 ).* s e a s o n s ? • • * Why do we h a v e 4 5 What i s a i r and a i r p r e s s u r e ? . • • « < 4 7 E x p e r ie n c e N o. 1* W here do we P in d a ir ? * 4 8 E x p e r ie n c e No* 2 . sp a c e ? * . * • D oes a i r ta k e up lj-8 E x p e r ie n c e No* 3* p r e s s u r e ? . . • D oes a i r make 4 8 E x p e r ie n c e No* i|.* a i r p r e s s u r e ? . D oes a i r make 4 8 E x p e r ie n c e N o. 5* p r e s s u r e . . . M easu rin g a i r 4 8 E x p e r ie n c e No* 6 . a sip h o n . . . A ir p r e s s u r e and 4 9 E x p e r ie n c e N o. 7* C h em ica ls i n th e a i r . * 49 E x p e r im e n tin g w it h e l e c t r i c i t y * • • < 50 E x p e r ie n c e N o. 1* i s e v e r y w h e r e • S t a t i c e l e c t r i c i t y 51 E x p e r ie n c e No* 2 . t r a v e l s th ro u g h E l e c t r i c i t y a i r . • • • • • • < 51 v i i CHAPTER PAGE E x p e r ie n c e No* 3* M aking e l e c t r i c i t y * • . 51 E x p e r ie n c e No* If. What i s a s w itc h ? • . • 53- E x p e r ie n c e No* 5* Way < 3 .0 we u s e f u s e s i n our. h o u s e s ? • * • • . . * • • • • • • 52 E x p e r ie n c e No* 6* What i s an e le c tr o -m a g n e t? * • • • * • * • • « • * • $2 E x p e r ie n c e No* ? • T a lk in g w ith e l e c t r i c i t y * • • • • • • . • * • • • • • $2 E x p e r ie n c e No* 8 . Two k in d s o f c u r r e n ts . 52: How a l l m a ch in e s a r e a l i k e • • * • * • • . « 5 1 4 - E x p e r ie n c e No* 1* A stea m m ach in e • • • . 5$ E x p e r ie n c e No* 2* What i s a l e v e r ? . • • * 5? E x p e r ie n c e No* 3* A w h e e l and a x l e . . . . 55 E x p e r ie n c e No* If. Can a p u l l e y h e lp u s work? ••••••• ••••••••• 55 E x p e r ie n c e N o. 5« What i s a s c r e w ? . . . . 56 E x p e r ie n c e No* 6 . How do m a ch in es h e lp u s ? •• •• •• •• • •• « •. • • 56 E x p e r ie n c e N o. 7* Ho y/ do g e a r s ch an ge d i r e c t i o n ? . • • • * . • • * • • • 56 What a r e so u n d s? ••• *. .•••••••. £ 8 E x p e r ie n c e N o. 1 . D i f f e r e n t so u n d s* . . . 59 E x p e r ie n c e N o. 2 . D oes a i r c a r r y sou n d ? . 59 E x p e r ie n c e N o. 3* What a r e sou nd w aves? • 59 CEAPTEB v i i i PAGE E x p e r ie n c e N o. if.. Our e a r s and s o u n d . . . $9 E x p e r ie n c e N o . How do we t a lk ? . . . . 39 T h in g s t o know ab ou t w ater . . • • • • • • « 6l E x p e r ie n c e N o. 1 . What i s w a te r made o f t • . . . 62 E x p e r ie n c e N o. 2 . What i s a w a te r t a b l e ? . 62 E x p e r ie n c e N o. 3« How i s our w a te r p r o v id e d ? . 62 E x p e r ie n c e N o. if . How d o e s a h o t w a te r ta n k work? 63 E x p e r ie n c e N o. f>. Can w a te r be" c le a n e d ? • 63 E x p e r ie n c e N o . 6 . Can we s t e r i l i z e w a te r ? • • • • • 63 E x p e r ie n c e N o. 7« Why do some t h in g s f l o a t b e t t e r th a n o t h e r s ? . . . . 63 Some t h in g s h e a t d o e s . • • • « • • • • . • • 65 E x p e r ie n c e N o . 1 . What do s o l i d s do when h e a t e d ? . 66 E x p e r ie n c e N o . 2 . How d o e s a th erm om eter w o rk ? . • • . • * 66 E x p e r ie n c e N o. 3 . What i s c o n d u c tio n ? • . 66 E x p e r ie n c e N o . if.. How d o e s h e a t t r a v e l th ro u g h w a te r ? . • . • • • • • • • 66 I CHAPTER i x m e® E x p e r ie n c e Ho# H ea t i s a b so rb ed when s o l i d s m e lt # « • • • • • • • • • # 66 i T h in g s t h a t l i g h t d o e s • • • • • • • • • • # 68 E x p e r ie n c e N o. 1# How c a n we ch an ge th e d i r e c t i o n o f l i g h t r a y s ? • # • • • 4 69 E x p e r ie n c e No# 2# M ia t i s r e f l e c t i o n o f l i g h t ? # • • # • • • • • • • • • * • • 69 E x p e r ie n c e No# 3* How c a n l i g h t h e lp y o u t o s e e b e h in d y o u r s e lf ? # . . . # . # 69 E x p e r ie n c e No# Ij.# How d o e s l i g h t h e lp u s t o s e e s m a ll o b j e c t s ? • # * • • • • # 69 E x p e r ie n c e No# 5* D oes s u n l i g h t h a v e c o lo r ? # • • • • • • # • • • • • • # 69 E x p e r ie n c e No# 6 # How do l e n s e s a f f e c t l i g h t r a y s ? .............................. 7 0 S c h o o l s o u r c e s o f m a t e r ia ls # • • • • • • • # 71 D e s ig n a t io n A* S c ie n c e d e p a r tm en t • • • * 72 D e s ig n a t io n B . C a f e t e r ia * • • • • • • * • 72 D e s ig n a t io n G* M a in ten a n ce d e p a r tm en t • ♦ 72 D e s ig n a t io n D # Home M aking d ep a rtm en t • « 72 D e s ig n a t io n E . I n d u s t r i a l A r ts d ep a rtm en t ............................................... # • • • • 73 D e s ig n a t io n F# B a s ic C ou rse depar tm en t • • # • • • • • • « • • • « # 73 X CHAPTEB PAGE D e s ig n a t io n G# P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n d e p a r tm en t 73 D e s ig n a t io n H . F in e A r ts d e p a r tm e n t ♦ . . 73 PAST I IHTHODUCTION i CHAPTER I PROBLEMS AND DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED The p a s t fe w y e a r s h a s s e e n a trem en d ou s a d v a n c e m en t i n a l l s c i e n t i f i c f i e l d s . The m ovem ent fo r w a r d i n th e p h y s ic a l s c i e n c e s h a s b e e n th e m o st p u b l i c i z e d . How e v e r , d i s c o v e r i e s and new c o n c e p ts i n o t h e r s c i e n t i f i c f i e l d s h a v e b e e n j u s t a s n o t a b l e . The p r o j e c t i o n o f a man-made m i s s i l e i n t o sp a c e i s much m ore d r a m a tic th a n th e f i r s t s y n t h e s i s o f a l i v i n g p r o t e i n i n a t e s t t u b e . As a c o n se q u e n c e o f t h i s new e m p h a sis on s c i e n c e , th e v o c a b u la r y o f th e a v e r a g e p e r s o n , a d o l e s c e n t , o r a d u lt h a s grown t o in c lu d e many o f th e term s fo r m e r ly u s e d o n ly b y th e t e c h n i c i a n . Some Id e a o f th e p h y s ic a l la w s g o v e r n i n g m i s s i l e s a r e a l s o p a r t o f th e la y m a n ’ s k n o w le d g e . R a d io , t e l e v i s i o n , n e w s p a p e r s, and m a g a z in e s h a v e e x p o se d e v e n ou r d u l l e s t p u p i l s t o a n eed f o r u n d er s t a n d in g p h y s ic a l la w s a s t h e y f u n c t io n i n ou r l i v e s to d a y and th e f u t u r e a s p r o j e c t e d b y s o c i e t y . To imbue th e t a l e n t e d s tu d e n t w it h t h e s e new id e a s and c o n c e p ts i s o f c o m p a r a tiv e l i t t l e d i f f i c u l t y . B u t one o f th e p ro b lem s w ith w h ich s o c i e t y m u st co p e i s t o t r a n s f e r some o f th e m o st b a s i c o f t h e s e id e a s t o a d o l e s c e n t s w ith m arked lo w e r a b i l i t y . The a d ju stm e n t to l i f e i n t h e p r e s e n t d a y w o r ld o f t h e s e p u p i l s o f lo w a b i l i t y 3 i s o f g r e a t im p o r ta n c e i f t h e y a r e t o f u l f i l l t h e i r r o l e a s c i t i z e n s » I n t e l l i g e n t v o t in g and l i v i n g i n th e fu t u r e w i l l d ep en d upon t h i s * The s t r u c t u r e o f our form o f g o v ern m en t d i c t a t e s t h a t , a s n e a r a s p o s s i b l e , a l l o f e a c h s u c c e e d in g g e n e r a t io n b e g iv e n s u f f i c i e n t k n o w led g e t o p e r p e tu a t e dem ocracy* I . THE PROBLEM S ta te m e n t o f th e p r o b le m * I t was th e p u rp o se o f t h i s s tu d y to fo r m u la te a grou p o f e x p e r ie n c e s , demon s t r a t i o n s , and e x p e r im e n ts w ith w h ic h th e te a c h e r o f r e t a r d e d s t u d e n t s a t th e fresh m a n and sophom ore l e v e l c o u ld h e lp th e s t u d e n t b e t t e r u n d e r s ta n d th e m o st b a s i c i d e a s o f s c i e n c e . I t was h o p ed t h a t t h i s i n s t r u c t i o n a l m a t e r i a l w ould s e r v e a s a g u id e f o r t e a c h e r s t o do a b e t t e r jo b i n m e e tin g th e n e e d s o f th e s t u d e n t s i n th e « P o in t 1 Program 1 1 I n th e W h it t ie r U n io n H igh S c h o o l D i s t r i c t * Im p o rta n ce o f t h e p r o b le m * S c ie n c e e d u c a t io n f o r th e m e n t a lly r e t a r d e d s t u d e n t In th e p a s t h a s b e e n p r e s e n t e d I n a c c o r d a n c e w ith th e i n d iv i d u a l t e a c h e r ’ s a b i l i t i e s and b a c k g r o u n d . I n a lm o s t a l l i n s t a n c e s , t h e te a c h e r h a s had a backgroun d o f s o c i a l s c i e n c e s and E n g li s h , r a t h e r th a n on e o f p h y s i c a l and b i o l o g i c a l s c i e n c e s . C o n s e q u e n tly , some c l a s s e s o f t h i s g rou p h a v e h had a b a r e minimum o r non e o f th e b a s i c s c i e n c e c o n c e p ts ta u g h t t o them * I t h a s b e e n p r e v io u s l y s t a t e d t h a t a l l s t u d e n t s s h o u ld be i n s t i l l e d a s n e a r ly a s p o s s i b l e w ith a fu n d a m e n ta l k n ow led ge o f t h e r u l e s and la w s o f n a tu r e w h ich c o n c e r n th e w orld t h a t t h e y l i v e in * I t I s f e l t t h a t t h i s p rob lem can b e p a r t i a l l y s o lv e d b y th e w r i t i n g o f t h i s m anual* L im it a t io n s o f th e p r o b le m * T h is p ro b lem a f f e c t s th e t e a c h in g o f s c i e n c e w it h in t h e fr a n e w o r k o f th e program f o r r e t a r d e d s t u d e n t s o n ly . A s u r v e y made among th e t e a c h e r s o f t h e s e g r o u p s I n d ic a t e d t h a t v e r y l i t t l e u n d e r s ta n d in g o f s c i e n c e c o n c e p ts had b e e n g a in e d by th e i n d iv i d u a l s tu d e n t* T h is was a p p a r e n tly du e t o a l a c k o f i n t e r e s t and "know how” up on th e p a r t o f many o f th e t e a c h e r s • A c o u r s e i s n e e d e d t o f i l l t h i s v o i d . T h is c o u ld p r o b a b ly b e s t be d on e b y an i n - s e r v i c e p rogram b e in g s t a r t e d w it h in th e d i s t r i c t i t s e l f * To b e s u c c e s s f u l , i t w ou ld h a v e to be s p e c i f i c and c o n c i s e . S u c c e s s f u l te a c h in g i n any f i e l d dem ands t h a t i n t e r e s t i n t h e p a r t i c u l a r s u b j e c t m a tte r b e shown b y th e t e a c h e r * i h i s m o st c e r t a i n l y d a t e s b a ck f a r t h e r th a n th e a s s ig n m e n t o f a t e a c h e r t o a s u b j e c t f o r on e o r s e v e r a l y e a r s * P erh a p s th e m o st s e r i o u s l i m i t a t i o n o f th e problem 5 i s th e i n t e r e s t f a c t o r o f th e s t u d e n t s t h e m s e lv e s . To b e s u c c e s s f u l , th e te a c h e r m ust c a t c h th e i n t e r e s t o f t h e s tu d e n t# The word s c i e n c e i n s t i l l s an a u to m a tic r e f u s a l u p on th e p a r t o f many s t u d e n t s . T h is i s en h a n ced w ith many p u p i l s i n a r e t a r d e d grou p # P erh a p s t h i s i s th e f i r s t and m o st im p o r ta n t p ro b lem t h a t m u st be s o l v e d . I I . DEFINITIONS OF TERMS T T SE D B e c a u se term s u s e d i n t h i s s tu d y m ig h t s u g g e s t d i f f e r e n t m ea n in g s t o d i f f e r e n t i n d i v i d u a l s , i t i s w e l l t o d e f i n e th e f o l lo w in g : B a s ic s c i e n c e e x p e r i e n c e s # T h ese a r e p r i n c i p l e s le a r n e d by th e s t u d e n t c o n c e r n in g th e m o st fu n d a m e n ta l la w s and phenom ena o f p h y s i c a l and l i f e s c i e n c e . A k n ow led ge o f a s c i e n c e e x p e r ie n c e i s t h e a b i l i t y to e x p r e s s i t s m ean in g i n o n e f s own la n g u a g e . T hey a r e d e r iv e d b y l e t t i n g th e s t u d e n t o b s e r v e and l e a r n t o a s s o c i a t e t h e s e w it h h i s own p a t t e r n o f e x p e r ie n c e and o b s e r v a tio n # P o in t 1 p rogram # T h is i s a program w it h in th e s c h o o l to e d u c a te a s much a s p o s s i b l e t h o s e s tu d e n t s w hose m e n ta l a b i l i t y i s f a r b e lo w th e a v e r a g e . S tu d e n ts h a v in g an i n t e l l i g e n c e q u o t ie n t o f s e v e n t y and l e s s f a l l w it h in t h i s grou p * They a r e h e ld t o g e t h e r i n one c l a s s 6 f o r th r e e p e r io d s o u t o f a t o t a l d ay o f s i x p e r io d s * The E d u c a tio n Code o f t h e S t a t e o f C a l i f o r n i a , d i v i s i o n If, c h a p te r 8 . 1 , a r t i c l e 1 3 , p age 5 5 6 , s e c t i o n s 9801 and 9 8 0 1 * 1 s t a t e s th e f o l l o w i n g la w s* S e c t i o n 9 8 0 1 s a y s t h a t : ”M e n ta lly r e t a r d e d m in o r s” m eans a l l m in o r s who b e c a u se o f r e t a r d e d I n t e l l e c t u a l d e v e lo p m e n t a s d e te r m in e d b y i n d i v i d u a l p s y c h o lo g ic a l e x a m in a tio n a r e in c a p a b le o f b e in g e d u c a te d e f f i c i e n t l y and p r o f i t a b l y th ro u g h o r d in a r y c la s s r o o m i n s t r u c t i o n *1 The s e c t i o n o f th e e d u c a t io n a l c o d e from w h ich P o in t 1 t a k e s i t s name i s s e c t i o n 9801*1* T h is s e c t i o n s a y s t h a t : The e d u c a t io n o f m e n t a lly r e ta r d e d m in o r s who are o f co m p u lso ry s c h o o l a g e and who may be e x p e c te d t o b e n e f i t from s p e c i a l e d u c a t io n a l f a c i l i t i e s d e s ig n e d t o make them e c o n o m ic a lly u s e f u l and s o c i a l l y a d j u s t e d s h a l l be p r o v id e d f o r i n th e m anner s e t f o r t h i n t h i s c h a p te r and i n A r t i c l e 13 o f C h ap ter 8 .1 o f t h i s d i v i s i o n * ^ R eta rd ed s t u d e n t s * The term r e t a r d e d s t u d e n t s i n t h i s s tu d y m eans any s t u d e n t who f a l l s i n t o th e c a te g o r y o f t h e P o in t 1 program * E m phasis i s on m e n ta l a b i l i t y r a t h e r th a n p h y s ic a l h a n d ic a p s * P r o j e c t gro u p s * T h is i s th e term g iv e n t o t h o s e s t u d e n t s w ho, b e c a u se o f i n f e r i o r m en ta l a b i l i t y , w ou ld E d u c a t i o n Code o f t h e S t a t e o f C a l i f o r n i a ( S a c r a m en to : P r in t in g D i v i s i o n , D ocum ents S e c t i o n , 1 9 5 7 ) , P* 5 5 6 . 7 i b e a t a d is a d v a n ta g e i n c o m p e t it io n w ith m o st s t u d e n t s i n th e c la s sr o o m * As a c o n s e q u e n c e , t h e y a r e g ro u p ed h o m o g e n e o u sly i n c l a s s e s f o r s c i e n c e , E n g li s h , and s o c i a l ! ) s t u d i e s * T h is g r o u p in g i s f o llo w e d f o r th e f i r s t t h r e e y e a r s o f h ig h s c h o o l# I I I . M ETH O D OF PROCEDURE S e v e r a l d i s c u s s i o n s w ith th e c o o r d in a to r o f th e c u r r i c u la r d i v i s i o n o f th e h ig h s c h o o l d i s t r i c t w ere h e ld * T h ese d i s c u s s i o n s I n d ic a t e d a n e e d f o r th e f o r m u la tio n o f some ty p e o f g r o u p in g o f s c i e n c e c o n c e p ts f o r m e n t a lly r e t a r d e d s t u d e n t s . I t w as f e l t t h a t b y a id in g th e te a c h e r o f t h e s e g r o u p s , im p rovem en t w ou ld a u t o m a t ic a lly be p a s s e d on t o th e s t u d e n t s * I t w as t h e o p in io n o f a n o th e r member o f th e c u r r ic u lu m s t a f f t h a t some s o r t o f l i s t i n g o f e x p e r im e n ts was n e e d e d . I n p roceeding w it h th e r e s e a r c h , a c o n s id e r a b le am ount o f m a t e r i a l w as r e v ie w e d f o r p e r t i n e n t in f o r m a tio n p e r t a in in g t o t h i s p r o b le m . V a s t am ounts o f m a t e r i a l on th e m e n t a lly r e t a r d e d was a v a i l a b l e . A m in is c u le am ount was fo u n d w h ic h s p e c i f i c a l l y d e a l t w it h th e q u e s t io n t o b e a n sw ered i n t h i s s t u d y . A q u e s t io n n a ir e was d i s t r i b u t e d t o th e v a r io u s t e a c h e r s o f th e d i s t r i c t w h ich a s k e d , M w hat e x p e r im e n ts o r d e m o n s tr a tio n s h a v e you fo u n d t o b e m o st s u c c e s s f u l 8 i n h e lp in g m e n t a lly r e ta r d e d , s t u d e n t s u n d e r s ta n d b a s i c s c i e n c e c o n c e p ts ? ” The r e s u l t s o f t h i s q u e s t io n n a ir e w ere l e s s th a n was h op ed fo r * I t d id s e r v e t o a g a in p o i n t o u t a n e e d f o r a d e f i n i t e o u t l i n e o f e x p e r im e n ts a d a p ted t o t h i s p a r t i c u l a r grou p # IV# ORGANIZATION OF THE STCJDY T h is s tu d y b e g a n w it h a s ta te m e n t o f th e p rob lem w h ich p o in t e d o u t th e n eed and e d u c a t io n a l im p o r ta n c e o f th e t e a c h in g o f s c i e n c e t o m e n t a lly r e t a r d e d s t u d e n t s d u r in g th e f i r s t two y e a r s o f h ig h s c h o o l# I n C h a p ter I I a c o n s id e r a b le am ount o f back grou n d m a t e r ia l I s p r e s e n te d # I t w as f e l t n e c e s s a r y t o s t a t e t h e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e g i f t e d s t u d e n t i n o r d e r t h a t a p a r a l l e l m ig h t more e a s i l y b e draw n b e tw e en th e tw o g r o u p s# A k n ow led ge o f I n t e l l i g e n c e , i t s l i m i t a t i o n s and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s , seem ed t o b e n e c e s s a r y b e f o r e p r o c e e d in g w ith recom m ended d a ta t o h e lp th e r e ta r d e d g r o u p s i n b a s i c s c i e n c e c o n c e p ts # C h a p ter I I I i s d e v o te d t o an o u t l i n e o f t h e m o st b a s i c s c ie n c e c o n c e p ts # M ost s t u d e n t s , e v e n th ou gh lo w i n a b i l i t y , sh o u ld h a v e a k n ow led ge o f t h e s e f a c t s # I t w as f e l t t h a t a d e t a i l e d d e s c r i p t i o n o f th e e x p e r im e n t o r d e m o n s tr a tio n , a v o c a b u la r y , th e c o n c e p t to u n d e r s ta n d i n th e form o f s u g g e s t e d q u e s t i o n s , and a l i s t o f r e a d i l y a c c e s s i b l e m a t e r i a ls w ould b e o f v a lu e t o th e t e a c h e r o f m e n t a lly r e t a r d e d s tu d e n ts # CHAPTER I I REVIEW OP THE LITERATURE The p u r p o se o f t h i s c h a p te r was t o p r e s e n t a summary o f m a t e r ia l c o l l e c t e d f o r th e p u rp o se o f i n v e s t i g a t i o n r e l a t i v e to th e n a tu r e and n e e d s o f r e t a r d e d s t u d e n t s . T hree q u e s t io n s s h o u ld f i r s t be a n s w e r e d . (1 ) S h o u ld b a s i c s c i e n c e e x p e r ie n c e b e a tte m p te d w it h r e t a r d e d g r o u p s? ( 2 ) What e x p e r ie n c e s sh o u ld be in c lu d e d ? (3 ) What i s th e b e s t p r o c e d u r e f o r t e a c h in g ? O th er m a t e r i a ls in c lu d e d i n th e summary o f m a t e r ia l w e r e : th e n a t u r e , g r o w th , and d i s t r i b u t i o n o f i n t e l l i g e n c e ; th e n a tu r e o f s lo w - le a r n in g s t u d e n t s ; th e n e e d s o f s l o w - l e a r n in g s t u d e n t s ; and som e p r i n c i p l e s c o n c e r n in g r e t a r d e d g r o u p s . T h is c h a p te r a l s o a tte m p ts t o e s t a b l i s h th e c u r r e n t p u r p o se s i n th e f o l lo w in g a r e a s : ( 1 ) th e p u rp oses o f ed u c a t i o n , and ( 2 ) th e purposes o f s e c o n d a r y e d u c a t io n . I . PURPOSES OP EDUCATION In t h e U n ite d S t a t e s th e p u rp o se o f e d u c a t io n a s d e f in e d by t h e E d u c a tio n a l P o l i c i e s C om m ission i s b a se d on a d e m o c r a tic way o f l i f e . The s c h o o l sh o u ld h a v e f u l l c o n t r o l o f th e program so a s t o in s u r e th e a c h ie v e m e n t o f p u rp o se and th e m a in te n a n c e o f th e program d e s i r e d . T h is im p lie s t h a t th e l e a d e r s o f e d u c a tio n s h o u ld do. a l l in It) t h e i r pow er t o e li m in a t e th e i n f l u e n c e o f o u t s id e m in o r it y p r e s s u r e g r o u p s who m ig h t be a tte m p tin g t o e li m in a t e th e freed o m o f c u r r ic u lu m d e v e lo p m e n t and d e m o c r a tic m eth od s o f i n s t r u c t i o n * An u n d e r s ta n d in g o f th e n a tu r e o f th e c o n t r o l s a d o p ted b y e d u c a to r s i n d e v e lo p in g a f r e e s o c i e t y r e q u ir e s a c o n s id e r a t io n o f th e v e r y h e a r t o f ou r e d u c a t io n a l sy stem * D e m o c r a tic e d u c a t io n i s d e v o te d to th e r e a l i z a t i o n o f d e m o c r a tic f a i t h * T h is im plies freed o m o f e x p r e s s io n * The e d u c a t io n a l p r o c e s s sh o u ld r e f l e c t i n t e g r i t y i n a l l r e l a t i o n s h i p s b etw een t e a c h e r s , p u p i l s , and members o f th e a d m in is t r a t iv e s t a f f * P e o p le o f e d u c a t io n sh o u ld be aw are o f c h a n g in g c o n d it io n s and n e e d s o f th e p u p ils * T h is c a l l s f o r a v e r y f l e x i b l e program o f i n s t r u c t i o n * S p e c i a l e f f o r t sh o u ld be made i n e d u c a t io n t o b r in g i n l a y p e o p le t o f a m i l i a r i z e th e com m unity w it h th e p ro b lem s o f t h e s c h o o l* T h is a l s o s e r v e s a s a t o o l i n h e lp in g th e s t u d e n t g a in a b e t t e r c o n c e p t o f t h e com m unity*^ The fu n d a m e n ta l p u r p o se s o f A m erican e d u c a t io n a s s t a t e d i n d e t a i l by th e E d u c a tio n a l P o l i c i e s C om m ission ^ E d u c a tio n a l P o l i c i e s C om m ission , P o l i c i e s f o r E d u c a tio n i n A m erican D em ocracy (W a sh in g to n , D*C*: N a tio n a l E d u c a tio n o f U n ite d S t a t e s and th e A m erican A s s o c ia t i o n o f S c h o o l A d m in is t r a t o r s , 1 9 3 7 )» PP* a r e : 1* The o b j e c t i v e s o f s e l f - r e a l i z a t i o n * 2 • The o b j e c t i v e s o f human r e l a t io n s h ip * 3* The o b j e c t i v e s o f eco n o m ic e f f i c i e n c y * !{.* The o b j e c t i v e s o f c i v i c r e s p o n s i b i l i t y * ^ I I . PURPOSES OP SECONDARY EDUCATION F u n d am en tal p u r p o se s o f e d u c a t io n w ere f u r t h e r d e f in e d f o r th e b e n e f i t o f se c o n d a r y e d u c a t io n b y th e E d u c a tio n a l P o l i c i e s C o m m issio n . E ig h t o f t e n : 1* A l l y o u th n eed t o d e v e lo p s a l e a b l e s k i l l s and t h o s e u n d e r s ta n d in g s and a t t i t u d e s t h a t w i l l make th e w orker an i n t e l l i g e n t and p r o d u c tiv e p a r t i c i p a n t i n econ om ic l i f e . 2 . A l l y o u th n e e d t o d e v e lo p and m a in ta in good h e a l t h and p h y s i c a l f i t n e s s . 3* A l l y o u th n e e d t o u n d e r s ta n d th e r i g h t s and d u t i e s o f th e c i t i z e n o f a d e m o c r a tic s o c i e t y . 1}.. A l l y o u th n e e d t o u n d e r s ta n d th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f th e f a m ily f o r th e in d iv id u a l* 5* A l l y o u th n eed t o know how to p u r c h a se and u s e g o o d s . 6 . N eed t o know th e m eth od o f s c i e n c e . 7 . A l l y o u th n eed o p p o r t u n i t i e s t o d e v e lo p t h e i r c a p a c i t i e s . p J ea n D . Grambs and W illia m J . I v e r s o n , Modern M ethods i n S e c o n d a r y E d u c a tio n (New Y ork: W illia m S lo a n e A s s o c i a t e s , 1 9 ^ 2 ) , p p • lj.6 -1 |7 • 12 8 . A l l y o u th n e e d t o be a b le t o u s e t h e i r l e i s u r e tim e w i s e l y *3 I I I . CONSIDERATIONS IN TEACHING- RETARDED STUDENTS S h o u ld b a s i c s c i e n c e e x p e r ie n c e s be a tte m p te d w it h r e ta r d e d g r o u p s? S c ie n c e p la y s a trem en d ou s r o l e i n p r e s e n t d ay l i f e * I t i s a m ig h ty f o r c e i n th e ad van cem en t o f c i v i l i z a t i o n . The c o n t r ib u t io n s o f s c i e n c e t o c i v i l i z e d l i v i n g and th e p o s s i b i l i t i e s o f f u r t h e r i n g human w e lfa r e h ave had f a r r e a c h in g s i g n i f i c a n c e f o r e v e r y i n d i v i d u a l . The e s s e n t i a l f e a t u r e s o f s c ie n c e a r e m ore th a n a n y th in g e l s e a way o f t h i n k i n g . I n c o n s e q u e n c e , s c ie n c e i s o f p ro fo u n d s i g n i f i c a n c e i n sh a p in g a t t i t u d e s and d e te r m in in g b e h a v io r . T h u s, b a s ic e x p e r ie n c e s o f s c ie n c e c a n be u t i l i z e d t o h e lp sh a p e th e b e h a v io r and a t t i t u d e s o f th e m e n t a lly r e t a r d e d s t u d e n t . Dr* Goodwin W atson s t a t e d much t h e same t h o u g h t . The c o n t r a s t in g v ie w p o in t i s t h a t o f th o s e more e n lig h t e n e d laym en and p r o f e s s i o n a l w o rk ers who r e g a r d a lm o s t e v e r y c h i l d a s c a p a b le o f d o in g som e t h in g w h ich w i l l a id th e g e n e r a l w e l f a r e . P erh ap s i t w i l l ta k e m ore s k i l l and a lo n g e r tim e to t e a c h him ; p e r h a p s he w i l l n e v e r be so e f f i c i e n t a s some 3 ^ E d u c a tio n a l P o l i c i e s C om m ission , E d u c a tio n f o r A l l A m erican Y ou th (W a sh in g to n . D . C .: N a t io n a l E d u ca- t i o n A s s o c i a t i o n , 19l|lj-)* PP* 2 2 6 - 2 2 7 . 13 o t h e r s , b u t h e can h e lp and h e lp i n a v e r y r e a l , way* S o c i e t y w ou ld be d e f i n i t e l y p o o r e r w ith o u t h im .4 The em p h a sis l a i d upon th e t e a c h in g o f s c i e n c e f o r r e t a r d e d g r o u p s u n f o r t u n a t e ly h a s b een i n no way com p arab le w ith th e s i g n i f i c a n c e o f s c ie n c e t o human l i v e s . I n th e m a j o r it y o f s c h o o l s , t h e b e a r in g o f s c i e n c e on human w e lfa r e and human a c t i v i t i e s h a s b e e n ig n o r e d o r o n ly s u p e r f i c i a l l y p r e s e n t e d . I n th e f i r s t two y e a r s o f h ig h s c h o o l , t o o many t e a c h e r s o f r e t a r d e d s t u d e n t s h ave b een c o n c e r n e d o n ly w it h d e s c r i b in g c e r t a i n r e s u l t s o f s c i e n t i f i c d e v e lo p m e n t or h a v e t r e a t e d th e w h ole s c i e n c e f i e l d i n c i d e n t a l l y . The b a s i c e x p e r ie n c e s o f s c ie n c e s h o u ld n o t c e a s e a t an e a r l y age f o r m e n t a lly r e t a r d e d s t u d e n t s . I t i s n e c e s s a r y t o p r o lo n g th e t e a c h in g o f t h i s s u b j e c t m a tte r * I t i s th e a b i l i t y o f t h e te a c h e r t o p r e s e n t t h e s e e x p e r i e n c e s I n an I n t e r e s t i n g m anner t h a t w i l l mean th e s u c c e s s o r f a i l u r e o f p e r c e p t io n up on th e p a r t o f th e r e t a r d e d s t u d e n t . I t i s n e c e s s a r y t o c o r r e l a t e th e b a s ic f a c t s and e x p e r ie n c e s p r e s e n t e d d u r in g th e fresh m a n y e a r i n t o in f o r m a t io n and p r e s e n t a t io n s d u r in g th e j u n io r y e a r . T h is s h o u ld c o n tin u e t o h o ld th e I n t e r e s t o f th e o ld e r s t u d e n t . M ost b a s i c s c i e n c e e x p e r ie n c e s can be r e l a t e d ^•The E x c e p t io n a l C h ild a s a N e g le c te d R e so u r c e ( V o l. I I , N o. 6 . L a n g h o rn e. P e n n s y lv a n ia : C h ild R e se a r c h C l i n i c o f th e Woods S c h o o l s , . 1 9 £ l’ ) , p . I4 . lij-l I t o th e d a i l y l i f e o f t h e m e n t a lly r e t a r d e d s tu d e n t* As an e x a m p le , e n e r g y can be a s s o c i a t e d w it h th e m ovem ent o f th e a u to m o b ile * R e ta r d e d s t u d e n t s o f t e n show a s m uch, 1 i i f n o t m o re, i n t e r e s t i n th e a u to m o b ile th a n t h e s t u d e n t w ith h ig h e r a b i l i t i e s * What e x p e r ie n c e s sh o u ld be in c lu d e d ? The sc o p e o f th e s c i e n c e c u r r ic u lu m sh o u ld be d e te r m in e d b y th e b a s i c p e r s o n a l and s o c i a l n e e d s o f th e i n d i v i d u a l and h i s g r o u p s . I t was h e ld by one w r it e r t h a t s i t u a t i o n s i n w h ich s t u d e n t s a r e f r e e to h a n d le a l l s o r t s o f m a t e r i a ls p r o v id e many m ore c h a lle n g in g i n t e r e s t s *5 T h is le n d s c r e d e n c e t o th e p o s s i b i l i t y o f t h e p h y s i c a l s c i e n c e s b e in g more i n t e r e s t i n g th a n ftie b i o l o g i c a l s c i e n c e s t o m e n t a lly r e ta r d e d s t u d e n t s * The t e a c h e r s h o u ld a lw a y s a tte m p t to u s e c o n te n t w h ich w i l l h e lp t o make s c i e n c e e x p e r ie n c e s and a t t i t u d e s m e a n in g fu l# The c o n t e n t I s n o t s o much a m a tte r o f f a c t s t o b e l e a r n e d , a s i t i s o f c h a l le n g e s t o e x p e r ie n c e s t o h e lp th e s t u d e n t u n d e r s ta n d h i s e v e r y d a y l i f e , and ways t o a s s i s t him i n a d j u s t in g t o h i s e n v iro n m en t* Ih e e x p e r ie n c e s f o r th e r e ta r d e d g ro u p s s h o u ld be e s s e n t i a l l y th o s e o f norm al s t u d e n t s * W ith t h e s e g r o u p s , b r e v i t y and c o n c is e n e s s s h o u ld be th e r u le * h o w ev er. 5 s . R . S la v s o n , S c ie n c e i n th e Hew E d u c a tio n (Hew Y ork : P r e n t i c e - H a l l I n c . , 1 9 3 4 7 7 PP* 125-12-7* 1 5 1 I A r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n th e e x p e r ie n c e b e in g i l l u s t r a t e d by p i e t u r e o r d e m o n s tr a tio n and th e s t u d e n t ’ s p r e v io u s in f o r m a tio n m ust be e s t a b l i s h e d * The m e a g e r n e ss ! o f k n o w led g e and g e n e r a l i n a b i l i t y o f th e r e t a r d e d s t u d e n t t o com prehend and e s t a b l i s h r e l a t i o n s h i p b e tw e e n f a c t u a l m a t e r ia l and t h i n g s h e may o b s e r v e m u st be r e a l i z e d b y th e t e a c h e r i f s u c c e s s f u l p r o g r e s s i 3 t o b e made* R e g a r d le s s o f th e a b i l i t y o f th e i n d i v i d u a l , w h eth er he b e o f norm al a b i l i t y or c l a s s i f i e d a s r e t a r d e d , th e c o n c e p tio n o f th e phenom ena around him i s th e r i g h t o f e a c h i n d iv i d u a l t o know* The w e a th e r , e l e c t r i c i t y , h e a t , p l a n t s , w a te r and m a c h in e s a r e a s much a p a r t o f th e c a u s e and e f f e c t o f th e esrery day l i f e o f th e m e n t a lly r e ta r d e d s t u d e n t a s o f o t h e r s m ore g i f t e d * What i s th e b e s t p r o c e d u r e f o r t e a c h in g ? I t m ig h t be b e s t t o a p p ro a ch th e p r o c e d u r e f o r te a c h in g s c i e n c e by t r y i n g t o d e te r m in e what s c i e n c e i s n o t* I t i s n o t r e s e r v e d f o r th e s p e c i a l fe w ; i t i s n o t su rro u n d ed i n m y ste r y * The t e a c h e r s h o u ld rem em ber t h a t th e d im e n s io n s o f s c i e n c e a r e s o v a s t t h a t no s i n g l e p e r s o n c a n e v e r en com p ass m ore th a n a m in is c u le a r e a * The im p o r ta n t t h in g i s t o e n d e a v o r f o r th e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s c o v e r in g th e s c i e n c e s * T h is i s a l l t h a t s h o u ld be a tte m p te d * John S . R ic h a r d so n i n h i s b o o k , S c ie n c e T e a c h in g i n S e c o n d a r y S c h o o ls g i v e s f i f t e e n p r o c e d u r e s t h a t t e a c h e r s 16 h a v e fou n d v a lu a b le f o r te a c h in g th e s lo w l e a r n e r . Some o f t h e s e may be u s e d a s g u id e s f o r t e a c h in g th e m e n t a lly r e ta r d e d s t u d e n t . 1 . Gruide s t u d e n t s t o n o te s u p e r s t i t i o n s and o th e r b i a s e s t h a t b lo c k f a i r c o n s i d e r a t io n o f s c i e n t i f i c e v id e n c e • 2 . I n c lu d e s t u d e n t a c t i v i t i e s t o s t r e s s b a s i c s k i l l s , su c h a s r e a d in g t a b l e s , o b s e r v in g e x p e r im e n ts , and s p e l l i n g common s c i e n c e w o r d s . 3 . H elp s t u d e n t s u n d e r sta n d sc lecx tifie r e a s o n s f o r f i r e - s a f e t y r u l e s , s a n i t a r y s t a n d a r d s , a n d /o r f i r s t a id p r a c t i c e s . 1|_. D is c u s s w it h s t u d e n t s th e q u a l i t i e s t h a t h e lp a p e r s o n h o ld a jo b i n i n d u s t r y . 5 . E n cou rage s t u d e n t s t o c o l l e c t c l i p p i n g s on th e u s e s made o f s c i e n c e i n e v e r y d a y l i f e . 6 . H elp s t u d e n t s t o u n d e r sta n d how t o o l s , su c h a s th e hammer, p la n e , d r i l l , and s c r e w d r iv e r o p e r a t e . 7 . E n cou rage s t u d e n t s to en g a g e i n r e c r e a t i o n a l r e a d in g o f s c ie n c e f i c t i o n . 8 . A nnounce and c o n d u c t d i s c u s s i o n o f r a d i o , t e l e v i s i o n , , and m ovie p r e s e n t a t io n o f s c i e n t i f i c e v e n t s . 6 What i s t h e h e a r t o f a g o o d s c i e n e e program ? The h e a r t o f a g o o d s c i e n c e program i s t o a r o u se i n e a c h s t u d e n t th e d e s i r e t o f i n d a n s w e r s . C u r i o s i t y , t h e r e f o r e , i s much more im p o r ta n t th a n a m ere a c c u m u la tio n o f 6 John S . R ic h a r d s o n , S c ie n c e T e a ch in g i n S eco n d a ry S c h o o ls (E nglew ood C l i f f s , New J e r s e y : P r e n t i c e - H a l l I n c . , 1 9 5 7 )5 P* 3©5* n \ i s c i e n t i f i c f a c t s * S h o u ld t e a c h in g be done w it h i l l u s t r a t i o n s and \ - d e m o n s tr a tio n s ? The p r e s e n c e o f a p i e c e o f e q u ip m e n t, s im p le th o u g h i t may b e , w i l l a lw a y s a r o u se th e c u r i o s i t y o f s t u d e n t s , e v e n th o s e who a r e r e t a r d e d . A t e s t t u b e , a p i e c e o f ru b b er h o s e , and a c o lo r e d c h e m ic a l seld o m f a i l to b r in g q u e s t i o n s . I t i s a t t h i s p o i n t t h a t t e a c h in g b e g i n s . O n stead a tte m p te d t o f i n d e f f e c t i v e w ays to te a c h s c i e n c e t o th e m e n t a lly r e t a r d e d . S e l e c t e d r e s e a r c h and o t h e r m a t e r ia ls w ere a n a ly z e d and e v a lu a t e d . B e so u r c e u n i t s w ere o r g a n iz e d i n w h ich s c i e n c e m a t e r ia l was a d a p te d to th e r e q u ir e m e n ts o f th e m e n t a lly r e t a r d e d . I h e s e in c lu d e d u n i t s on a n im a ls , p l a n t s , s o l a r sy ste m and s t a r s , s u r f a c e o f th e e a r t h , a i r and w e a th e r , form s o f e n e r g y , and m a c h in e s . Some o f th e c o n c lu s io n s r e a c h e d w e r e : ( 1 ) e x p e r ie n c e s sh o u ld h e lp t h e s e s t u d e n t s d e v e lo p h a b it s o f more c a r e f u l o b s e r v a t io n ; (2) e x p e r ie n c e s sh o u ld be made o b j e c t i v e b y u s in g c o n c r e t e m a t e r i a ls ; ( 3 ) a c t i v i t i e s sh o u ld be r e l a t e d t o e v e r y d a y e x p e r ie n c e s o f th e s t u d e n ts # ? S h o u ld t e a c h in g b e don e w it h r e a d in g and r e c i t a t i o n ? 7 G race O n ste a d , S c i e n c e f o r B e ta r d e d C h ild r e n i n E le m e n ta r y S c h o o ls 1 1 (u n p u b lis h e d M a ster * s t h e s i s , San D ie g o S t a t e C o l l e g e , C a l i f o r n i a , 1 9 5 5 )♦ 18 Any c o u r s e b a s e d p u r e ly upon r e a d in g and r e c i t a t i o n i s le a n in g on th e a b i l i t y o f th e s tu d e n t t o a s s i m i l a t e and com prehend th e m a t e r i a l . T h is i s a minimum m ethod o f p r e s e n t in g m a t e r ia l to a c l a s s . S tu d e n ts w ith g r e a t e r th a n norm al a b i l i t y ca n u n d e r s ta n d and i n t e r p r e t th e w r i t t e n f a c t s a s t h e y f i n d th em . R e ta r d e d s t u d e n t s a r e o f t e n d e s ig n a t e d as su c h f o r th e l a c k o f th e same r e a s o n . T h e ir i n a b i l i t y t o com prehend and a s s i m i l a t e w r i t t e n i n fo r m a tio n d e s i g n a t e s them a s s u c h . C o n se q u e n tly o th e r m eth od s m ust be u s e d t o h e lp them w it h th e m a t e r i a ls p r e s e n t e d i n s c i e n c e c o n c e p ts a t t h e h ig h s c h o o l l e v e l * I T . INTELLIGENCE DEFINED I n t e l l i g e n c e h a s b e e n d e f in e d i n v a r io u s w a y s . To m any, i t i s synonym ous w ith a b i l i t y to l e a r n . Some d e f in e i t a s th e a b i l i t y t o a d a p t o n e s e l f t o n o v e l s i t u a t i o n s ; o t h e r s , a s th e a b i l i t y t o c a r r y on h ig h e r p r o c e s s e s o f t h o u g h t . Many p e o p l e , a d o le s c e n t s o r a d u l t s , a c h ie v e a g o a l com m ensurate w ith th o s e o f h ig h e r a b i l i t y b e c a u s e o f th e d r iv e t h a t t h e y may p o s s e s s . The n a tu r e o f i n t e l l i g e n c e . I n t e l l i g e n c e i s th e f u n c t i o n o f th e c e n t r a l n e r v o u s sy ste m and i s d ep e n d en t u p on th e i n h e r i t e d s t a t e o f t h e n e r v o u s s y s te m . L e a r n in g i s f a c i l i t a t e d when th e r e I s good n e r v e m a t e r ia l upon w h ich to w o rk . P s y c h o l o g i c a l l y , g e n e r a l i n t e l l i g e n c e I s 1 9 ! i m e n ta l e n e r g y , p l a s t i c i t y o f th e n e r v o u s s y s te m , th e c o n d i t i o n o f t h e b lo o d , e n d o c r in e b a la n c e , o x y g e n a tio n and b y many o t h e r f a c t o r s . Some a u t h o r i t i e s m a in ta in j t h a t a p e r s o n ’ s t o t a l i n t e l l i g e n c e i s made up o f a l a r g e number o f s p e c i a l a b i l i t i e s , n o t bound t o g e t h e r b y a common f a c t o r * M en ta l c a p a c it y i s p r o b a b ly i n h e r i t e d b u t i t n e e d s a p r o p e r e n v ir o n m e n t t o d e v e lo p i t * E n v ir onm ent a f f o r d s th e s t im u lu s ; h e r e d i t y d e te r m in e s th e n a tu r e o f th e r e a c t i n g s u b s ta n c e * F or t h a t r e a s o n , th e e x a c t n a tu r e o f i n t e l l i g e n c e i s unknown* % S a n d ifo r d h a s e x p la in e d th e g r o w th o f i n t e l l i g e n c e a s f o l l o w s : P s y c h o l o g is t s a r e u n c e r t a in o f th e gro w th a t th e d i f f e r e n t s t a g e s o f d e v e lo p m en t and o f th e norm al a g e o f m a t u r it y o f i n t e l l i g e n c e . From ou r k n o w led g e o f p h y s i c a l g ro w th and from a c o n s i d e r a t io n o f s c o r e s o b ta in e d i n grou p t e s t s , th e b e s t p r e d i c t i o n sh ow s a g r a d u a l s lo w in g up o f i n t e l l e c t u a l g ro w th d u r in g c h ild h o o d and t h a t f o r n orm al p e r s o n s , a t l e a s t , i t c e a s e s around th e age o f s i x t e e n * B r ig h t e r c h ild r e n te n d t o grow i n i n t e l l i g e n c e more q u ic k ly and f o r a lo n g e r p e r io d th a n n orm al c h ild r e n * What h a p p en s a f t e r m a t u r ity i s r e a c h e d , we do n o t know . P erh ap s th e l e v e l o f i n t e l l i g e n c e r e m a in s f a i r l y c o n s t a n t d u r in g t h e a d u lt p e r io d , f a l l i n g o f f g r a d u a lly a s s e n i l e d e c a y s e t s in*® G row th o f i n t e l l i g e n c e ♦ The i n t e l l i g e n c e q u o t ie n t d o e s n o t change t o any s i g n i f i c a n t d e g r e e i n s u c c e s s i v e S P e t e r S a n d if o r d , E d u c a tio n a l P sy c h o lo g y (L ondon: Longm ans, G reen and Company, 1 9 3 3 ) , p . II4 .7 . 20] o r r e p e a t e d m e a su r e m e n ts, r e g a r d l e s s o f the le n g t h o f tim e w h ic h e l a p s e s . A sum m ation o f v a r io u s s o u r c e s i n d i c a t e s t h a t th e g ro w th o f i n t e l l i g e n c e p r o c e e d s r a t h e r i s t e a d i l y from y e a r t o y e a r w ith o u t m arked f l u c t u a t i o n . V e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l g ro w th o f i n t e l l i g e n c e . I t was p r e v io u s l y s t a t e d t h a t i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t s i n d i c a t e th e p e r s o n o f f o r t y I s no more i n t e l l i g e n t th a n i n d i v i d u a l s i n th e l a t e t e e n s , d is r e g a r d in g e x p e r ie n c e and m a t u r it y . Some p s y c h o l o g i s t s s t a t e t h a t t h e r e i s b o th a v e r t i c a l and h o r i z o n t a l g ro w th o f i n t e l l i g e n c e . A g e n iu s may r a i s e h i s l e v e l a s h ig h a s t h e t h i r t i e s . B u t no m a tte r how lo n g , no m a tte r how much e f f o r t a p e r s o n p u ts f o r t h , h i s a v e r a g e p er fo r m a n c e on an i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t r e m a in s around t h i s f i x e d and p r e -d e te r m in e d l e v e l . E d u c a tio n seem s I n c a p a b le o f c h a n g in g th e l e v e l , b u t i t ca n d e te r m in e th e e x t e n t o f h o r i z o n t a l d e v e lo p m e n t a t any l e v e l . H o r iz o n t a l g r o w th l i m i t e d . H o r iz o n t a l g r o w th In p r a c t i c e seem s a l s o t o show f a i r l y w e l l d e f in e d l i m i t s w h ich b ear a d i r e c t r e l a t i o n s h i p to i t s l e v e l on th e v e r t i c a l s c a l e . A g e n iu s can a c t u a l l y l e a r n m ore t h in g s th a n a su bnorm al p e r s o n . S a n d ifo r d c i t e s an e x a m p le , s a y in g t h a t a p e r s o n o f a v e r a g e i n t e l l i g e n c e m ig h t a c q u ir e a s many f a c t s a b o u t h i s t o r y a s a fam ous h i s t o r i a n , b u t 21 I i t h a t h e c o u ld n o t b e a b e t t e r h i s t o r i a n * The g e n iu s w o rk in g a t a h ig h e r l e v e l h a s th e pow er t o r e l a t e c a u s e and e f f e c t w h ic h i s d e n ie d th e p e r s o n o f l e s s i n t e l l i g e n c e * The f a c t s o f h i s t o r y may be a lo n g a h o r i z o n t a l p la n e , b u t t h e i r p r o p e r i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , th e o n ly r e a s o n fo r s tu d y in g h i s t o r y , i s a m a tte r o f v e r t i c a l h e ig h th * ^ The d i s t r i b u t i o n o f i n t e l l i g e n c e * Term an, i n h i s s tu d y o f one th o u sa n d u n s e l e c t e d A m erican c h i l d r e n , fo u n d t h a t th e d i s t r i b u t i o n c l o s e l y f o l l o w s th e c u r v e o f c h a n c e * The i n t e l l i g e n c e q u o t ie n t s o f 60 p e r c e n t o f th e c h ild r e n w ere b e tw e en 90 and 1 1 0 (n o r m a l); 13 p e r c e n t b e tw e en 1 1 0 and 1 2 0 ( s u p e r i o r ) ; 13 p e r c e n t b e tw e e n 80 and 9 0 ( d u l l ) ; 6 * 7 5 p e r c e n t b e tw e e n 1 2 0 and llj.0 (v e r y s u p e r i o r ) ; 6 p e r c e n t b e tw e e n 70 and 80 (b o r d e r l i n e ) ; 1 p e r c e n t b e lo w 70 ( f e e b le - m in d e d ) ; and *2 $ p e r c e n t ab ove lij.0 ( g e n i u s )* 10 T h is w ou ld a p p r o x im a te a b o u t tw o p e r c e n t o f th e s t u d e n t s t h a t n e e d s p e c i a l i z e d c l a s s e s , b e c a u s e o f lo w m en ta l a b i l i t y * C h a r a c t e r i s t i c s o f th e m e n t a lly r e t a r d e d s t u d e n t * The c a p a c i t i e s d i f f e r i n q u a l i t y a s w e l l a s q u a n tity * Two m e n t a lly r e t a r d e d s t u d e n t s a r e m ore u n l ik e th a n two n orm al o n e s* The new c a n n o t be b u i l t upon th e o ld o r 9 I b i d . . p . l £ L . lO jjew ls M. Terman and Maud A . M e r r i l l , M easu rin g I n t e l l i g e n c e (B o s to n : H ou gh ton , M i f f l i n Company, 1 9 3 7)$ p* iv * c l o s e l y r e l a t e d c a p a c i t y . The r e t e n t i v e n e s s i s v e r y lo w or n o n - e x i s t e n t * T hey c a n n o t c o n c e n t r a t e f o r lo n g p e r io d s and f r e q u e n t s h ifts m a st h e m ad e. They h a v e r o t e r a t h e r th a n a s s o c i a t i v e m em ory. They do n o t s e e d i f f e r e n c e s or l i k e n e s s e s q u i c k l y . They a r e d e p e n d e n t, l a c k i n i t i a t i v e and r e s o u r c e f u l n e s s , and n e e d c o n s t a n t d i r e c t i o n * V . HEEDS OF MENTALLY BETAHDED STUDENTS. F r e q u e n tly , a s t u d e n t 1s l a c k o f p r o g r e s s i s due t o p h y s i c a l c o n d i t i o n s . He may n e e d g l a s s e s , h i s h e a r in g may b e d e f e c t i v e , h e may b e m a ln o u r is h e d , o r h e may n o t b e h a v in g en ou gh r e s t , s l e e p , or e x e r c i s e . O fte n s t u d e n t s may b e r e p u ls e d b y o t h e r s b e c a u se o f t h e i r d r e s s * T h e s e , com pounded w it h lo w m e n ta l a b i l i t y , s e r v e t o make th e s t u d e n t m ore d u l l th a n h e a c t u a l l y i s * S t u d e n t s i n t h i s c a te g o r y n e e d prom pt a t t e n t i o n t o h e a l t h p ro b lem s* They n e e d th e te a c h e r who b en d s e v e r y e f f o r t t o p rom u l g a t e s o c i a l a c c e p ta n c e w ith th e grou p * The r e t a r d e d s t u d e n t , more th a n any o t h e r , n e e d s s e c u r i t y , a f e e l i n g o f b e in g w a n ted , o f b e lo n g in g t o h i s group* The s h y , t im id s t u d e n t a l s o r e q u i r e s s p e c i a l a t t e n t i o n . The te a c h e r sh o u ld b e s u r e t h a t o p p o r tu n ity i s g iv e n to t h o s e s t u d e n t s to p a r t i c i p a t e . F u r th e r m a la d j u s t m ent i s o f t e p t h e r e s u l t o f n o n - p a r t ic ip a t io n * 23 i V I . NEED POE A MODIFIED CURRICULUM A c u r r ic u lu m s u i t e d t o th e r e t a r d e d s t u d e n t 1s n e e d s | i s m o st im p o r ta n t. P r o g r e s s , no m a tte r how s m a ll, i s m o st I i im p o r ta n t . R e p e a te d f a i l u r e i s o f t e n th e opium o f th e r e ta r d e d s t u d e n t . O fte n th e s t u d e n t sim p ly d id n o t h a v e th e f o u n d a t io n o r th e t o o l s w it h w h ic h to do th e work t h a t i s e x p e c te d o f h im . The te a c h e r sh o u ld l e a r n t o ta k e th e s t u d e n t s w here he fo u n d them and f i t th e ta s k t o t h e i r c a p a b i l i t i e s * S tu d e n ts s h o u ld n o t b e i n s i t u a t i o n s w here th e y c o n t i n u a l l y f a i l . T here i s a common b a s i s f o r th e e d u c a tio n o f a l l s t u d e n t s . The fu n d a m e n ta l p r i n c i p l e in v o lv e d i s t h a t e a c h s t u d e n t s h o u ld be e d u c a te d i n k e e p in g w ith h i s c a p a c i t i e s , l i m i t a t i o n s , and i n t e r e s t s . He sh o u ld be d i r e c t e d to w a r d s th e h a p p ie s t p o s s i b l e a d ju stm e n t and th e g r e a t e s t c o n t r i b u t i o n h e i s c a p a b le o f m a k in g . V I I . SUM M ARY The f i r s t t a s k in v o lv e d i n th e s o l u t i o n o f t h i s p rob lem w as t o d e c id e w hat b a s i c s c i e n c e c o n c e p ts s h o u ld be in c lu d e d i n a c o u r s e d e s ig n e d f o r r e t a r d e d s t u d e n t s . The s e a r c h f o r p r e c e d e n t w as o f l i t t l e o r no v a l u e . The g e n e r a l m a t e r ia l c o v e r in g th e t e a c h in g o f th e r e ta r d e d s t u d e n t i s a lm o s t i n e x h a u s t i b l e . H ow ever, th e d a ta on th e s p e c i f i c t o p i c o f t h i s s tu d y , w a s, f o r p r a c t i c a l p u r p o s e s , n i l # R e se a r c h d id r e v e a l c e r t a i n p r i n c i p l e s t h a t a r e a p p lic a b le to t h e t e a c h in g o f r e t a r d e d s t u d e n t s # P a r ts o f t h i s w ere u s e d t o fo r m u la te th e t e a c h in g o f b a s ic s c i e n c e c o n c e p ts t o r e t a r d e d s t u d e n ts # P h y s ic a l d e f e c t s , no m a tte r how s l i g h t , te n d t o l i m i t th e s tu d e n t m e n t a lly , c a u se him t o b e d is t u r b e d e m o t io n a lly and b e l a c k in g s o c i a l l y , d u l l h i s p o w ers o f r e c e p t i v i t y , and r e d u c e th e a b i l i t y to p a r t i c i p a t e i n s c h o o l a c t i v i t y # ih e r a p id se q u e n c e o f e v e n ts i n t h e s c i e n t i f i c w o r ld d u r in g th e l a s t fe w y e a r s h a s p r o j e c t e d th e w o r ld i n t o an i n t e r e s t o f a l l t h i n g s s c i e n t i f i c # N ew sp ap ers and p o p u la r p e r i o d i c a l s u s e w ords and p h r a s e s w it h s c i e n t i f i c c o n c e p t t h a t a d eca d e a g o w ou ld h a v e b e e n i n c o m p r e h e n s ib le t o t h e laym an# B a s ic c o n c e p t s w h ich w ere c o n s id e r e d n e c e s s a r y t o t h e s t u d e n t o f h ig h a b i l i t y th e n a r e now so much a p a r t o f s o c i e t y ’ s c o n v e r s a t io n to d a y t h a t a l l s tu d e n ts s h o u ld be ta u g h t t h e i r m ea n in g and u n d e r s ta n d in g • I t i s d i f f i c u l t t o fo r m u la te a s e r i e s o f l e s s o n p la n s o r p r o c e d u r e s f o r g ro u p s o f r e ta r d e d s t u d e n t s # An o u t l i n e w as fo u n d t o b e o f v a lu e f o r th e t e a c h e r s o f r e t a r d e d s t u d e n t s i n th e W h it t ie r U n io n H ig h S c h o o l D i s t r i c t * I t was w ith t h i s i n m ind t h a t th e s e r i e s o f e x p e r ie n c e s c o v e r in g th e m o st b a s i c s c i e n t i f i c c o n c e p ts h a v e b een p r e s e n t e d i n th e p a g e s f o llo w in g * BIBLIOGRAPHY FOR PART I BIBLIOGRAPHY A. BOOKS A r e y , C h a r le s K# S c ie n c e E x p e r ie n c e s f o r E le m e n ta r y S c h o o l s # Hew Y ork : T e a c h e r * s C o l l e g e , C olum bia U n i v e r s i t y , 1942* 9 8 pp# A lth o u g h on an e le m e n ta r y l e v e l , th e b o o k i s o f c o n s id e r a b le v a lu e f o r t h e te a c h e r o f r e t a r d e d s t u d e n t s a t th e e le m e n ta r y and h ig h s c h o o l l e v e l # B a k er , H arry J * C h a r a c t e r i s t i c D i f f e r e n c e s i n B r ig h t a n d ^ D u ll C h ild r e n * Hew Y ork: P u b lic S c h o o l P ub- l i s h i n g Company, 1927* 2 6 7 PP* T h is book i s u s e f u l f o r r e f e r e n c e i n r e l a t i o n t o th e p s y c h o l o g ic a l d i f f e r e n c e s i n s t u d e n t s # C h ish o lm , L e s lie # The Work o f t h e Modern H igh S c h o o l# Hew Y ork : The M acM illan Company, 195?3• 5l|2 pp# T h is b ook s e r v e d a s b ack g ro u n d m a t e r ia l f o r r e s e a r c h on e d u c a t io n i n i t s e n t i r e t y # C o n a n t, Jam es B ryan t# S c ie n c e and Common S e n s e # Hew H aven , C o n n e c t ic u t : Y a le U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1951* 3171 p p . T h is book p r e s e n t s f a m i l i a r s e i e n c e phenom ena w h ich i s r e a d i l y a p p a r e n t to th e laym an# I t i s u s e f u l f o r p e r s o n s w is h in g e x p la n a t io n s w ith o u t th e t e c h n i c a l i t y and d e t a i l o f a fo r m a l c o u r se # D o lch , Edward W illiam # H e lp in g th e E d u c a tio n a lly H a n d ic a p p ed # C ham paign, I l l i n o i s : G arrard P r e s s , 19^0 . 3Z j.6 pp# I d e a s and s p e c i f i c m a t e r ia l v a lu a b le t o th e in d iv i d u a l te a c h e r i s a v a i la b l e # A s p e c i f i c id e a m ig h t be d e r iv e d from t h i s b o o k . G a r ris o n , C h a r lo tte Gane# S c ie n c e E x p e rie n c e s f o r L i t t l e C h ild r e n # Hew Y ork: C• S c r ib n e r s and S o n s, 1939* 111 p p • U s e f u l f o r id e a s on th e p r e s e n t a t io n o f s c ie n c e i n th e m o st e le m e n ta r y m anner# T h is book w ou ld h e lp to b r in g o th e r id e a s t o th e m ind o f th e te a c h e r # 28 G ram bs, Jean D . and W illia m J . I v e r s o n * Modern M ethods i n S e c o n d a r y E d u c a tio n * New Y ork : D ryden P r e s s , 1 9 5 2 * 3^2 p p . T h is book i s an e x c e l l e n t r e s o u r c e t e x t w h ic h in c lu d e s' many p h a s e s o f th e h ig h s c h o o l program and c u r r ic u lu m . H en ry , N e ls o n B* S c ie n c e E d u c a tio n i n A m erican S c h o o ls * C h ic a g o : U n i v e r s i t y o f C h ica g o P r e s s , 194? • 30& PP * T h is book c o v e r s p r i n c i p l e s o f p r o c e d u r e , p h i l o so p h y , e t c * o f s c ie n c e e d u c a t io n ; u s e f u l f o r an o v e r a l l p i c t u r e . H odgon, D a n ie l H* Jr* G en er a l S c ie n c e * New Y ork: H in d s H ayden, E ld r id g e , 1 9 2 2 • TJ62 pp* N ote d a te o f p r i n t i n g ; m akes i n t e r e s t i n g m a t e r ia l to p r o v id e c o m p a r iso n w ith more r e c e n t work on th e s u b j e c t * H u n te r , G eorge W illia m . S c ie n c e T e a c h in g a t J u n io r and S e n io r H i L e v e l s * New Y ork : A m erican Book Company, 1 9 3 4 * pp* A good book f o r g e n e r a l r e f e r e n c e , p e r t a i n in g to th e t e a c h in g o f s c i e n c e . Many o f th e id e a s and e x p e r im e n ts can be u s e d i n a s i m p l i f i e d manner* In gram , C h r is t in e P o r te r * E d u c a tio n o f th e S lo w L e a r n in g C h ild * New Y ork : The B o n a ld P r e s s Company, 1939* 229 p p . Some c o n c e p ts and I d e a s t h a t can be u s e d i n c o n j u n c t io n w it h t h e s lo w l e a r n in g s tu d e n t* K in d e r , Jam es S . The A u d io V is u a l H ea d er * D ubuque, Iow a: W illia m C . Brown Company. 232 pp* U s e f u l f o r b ack grou n d In p r e s e n t a t io n o f m a t e r ia l* L a k e, C h a r le s H enry* A G en e r a l S c ie n c e W orkbook. New Y ork : S i l v e r , B e r r d e t t and Company, 193 5 * 197 PP* T h is book was u s e f u l In o b t a in in g id e a s c o n c e r n in g th e v e r y e le m e n ta r y s c ie n c e c o n c e p t s . L yn d e, C a r le to n J . S c ie n c e E x p e r ie n c e s w it h I n e x p e n s iv e E q u ip m en t. S c r a n to n , P e n n s y lv a n ia : I n t e r n a t i o n a l T ex tb o o k Company, 1939* 2 £ 8 pp* Some e x p e r im e n ts a r e s u i t a b l e f o r u s e w ith lo w a b i l i t y s t u d e n t s . A v a lu a b le r e f e r e n c e f o r e x p e r i m en ts w h ic h can b e s i m p l i f i e d * 2 9 : ( ( R ic h a r d s o n , John S# S c ie n c e T e a c h in g i n S e c o n d a r y S c h o o l s . E n glew ood C l i f f s , New J e r s e y s P r e n t i c e - H a l l I n c # , 1957* 3 8 5 P P . S a n d if o r d , P e te r # E d u c a tio n a l P s y c h o lo g y ♦ L on d on : L ongm ans, G reen and Company, 1933* 2 8 7 p p . A good sta n d a r d r e f e r e n c e f o r b a s i c p s y c h o l o g ic a l p r i n c i p l e s # Term an, L e w is M. M easu rin g I n t e l l i g e n c e # B o s to n : H o u g h to n , M i f f l i n Company, 1937* 3^6 pp# S t a t i s t i c a l d a ta on i n t e l l i g e n c e # B . PUBLICATIONS OF THE GOVERNM ENT AND LEARNED SOCIETIES A n a ly s is o f R e se a r c h i n th e T e a ch in g o f S c ie n c e # W ash in g t o n , D# G#: U n ite d S t a t e s G overnm ent P r in t in g O f f i c e , 1958# B u l l e t i n No# 7* 5 5 PP* S tu d ie s r e l a t e d t o c u rric u lu m , l e a r n i n g , c a r e e r s , t e s t i n g , e v a lu a t io n , e t c . on th e e le m e n ta ry and s e c o n d a ry le v e ls # E d u c a tio n Code o f th e S t a t e o f C a l i f o r n i a . 1957 e d i t io n # S a c r a m e n to , C a l i f o r n i a : P r in t in g D i v i s i o n , D ocum ents S e c tio n # 1 3 9 1 p p . E d u c a tio n f o r A l l A m erican Y o u th ♦ W a sh in g to n . D# C .: N a t io n a l E d u c a tio n A s s o c i a t i o n , 1944* 354 PP* B e la t e d to th e s o c i a l a s p e c t s o f e d u c a tio n # E d u c a tio n o f M e n ta lly H an d leap "p ed C h ild r e n # B u l l e t i n No. V Ip E > , # ll|# C h ica g o : U n iv e r s it y o f I l l i n o i s . 1 7 6 p p . An e x c e l l e n t g e n e r a l r e f e r e n c e ; v a lu a b le f o r c o n c e p ts and r e l a t e d id e a s # E d u c a tio n a l P o l i c i e s 'C om m ission# P o ll c l e s f o r E d u c a tio n i n A m erican D em o cracy# W a sh in g to n , D . C #: The N a t io n a l E d u c a tio n o f th e U n ite d S t a t e s and th e A m erican A s s o c i a t i o n o f S c h o o l A d m in is t r a t o r s , 1 9 3 7 . 2 9 8 p p . I 3 0 ; I I n fo r m a tio n R e g a r d in g t h e E d u c a tio n o f M e n ta lly He ta r ded M inors i n C a l i f o r n i a # V o l . XXIV, H o. 1 0 . C a l i f o r n i a : S t a t e D ep artm en t o f E d u c a tio n , 1955* 57 PP* An e x c e l l e n t r e f e r e n c e f o r g e n e r a l < $ ie stio n s p e r t a in in g t o s u b j e c t m a tte r o f th e t i t l e * M e n ta lly R e ta rd ed S tu d e n ts i n C a l i f o r n ia S eco n d a ry S c h o o l s » V o l . XXII* N o . 7* C a l i f o r n ia S t a t e D ep artm en t o f E d u c a tio n , 1953* 2 0 0 pp* S u g g e s te d C ou rse o f S tu d y i n S c ie n c e f o r E le m e n ta r y S c h o o l s * H o. 1 3 , P a r t I* C a l i f o r n ia S t a t e D e p a r t- m ent o f E d u c a tio n , 1932* Fram ework and o u t li n e o f v a lu e in r e f e r e n c e to r e t a r d e d s tu d e n ts o f o ld e r c h r o n o lo g ic a l a g e . The E x c e p t io n a l C h ild a s a N e g le c te d R e s o u r c e . V o l . 2 , N o. o . L a n g h o rn e, P e n n s y lv a n ia : C h ild R e se a r c h C l i n i c o f th e Woods S c h o o l s . 102 pp# U s e f u l f o r r e f e r e n c e p e r t a in in g t o v ie w p o in t s o f v a r io u s a u t h o r i t i e s . The V o c a b u la r ie s and C o n te n ts o f E le m e n ta r y S c h o o l R e a d e rs . C a l i f o r n i a S ta te D ep artm en t o f E d u c a tio n , 1 9 3 8 . 104. p p . A lth o u g h c o n c e r n e d w it h e le m e n ta r y s c h o o l d a t a , v e r y h e l p f u l f o r v o c a b u la r y b ack grou n d f o r r e t a r d e d s t u d e n t s # C. PERIODICALS S t e r n ig , John* 1 1 Program s f o r E le m e n ta ry S ch o o l S c ie n c e ,1 1 The N a tio n 1s ,S c h o o ls , V o l. 6 l , # 5 , 1958* S u g g e ste d ch a n g es i n th e sc h o o l p ro g ram ; o f f e r s some id e a s f o r u s e w ith r e ta r d e d s t u d e n ts . D . UNPUBLISHED MATERIALS D a v is , G eorge W. 1 1 The Knowledge o f P h y s ic a l and C hem ical S c ie n c e s Needed f o r P e rs o n a l U s e .w U n p u b lish e d M a s te rfs t h e s i s , The U n iv e r s ity o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , Los A n g e le s, 1935♦ 31 D ea co n , C h a r lo tte * M An E x p e r im e n ta l C ou rse o f S tu d y i n B io lo g y f o r S p e c ia l Low A b i l i t y G rou ps*n U n p u b lish e d B la ste r 1 s t h e s i s , The U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e r n C a l i f o r n i a , Los A n g e le s , 1935* P a r a l l e l p r o c e d u r e s can b e d e r iv e d from t h i s stu d y f o r o th e r s c i e n c e c o n c e p ts f o r r e t a r d e d s tu d e n ts * L an gw orth y, R* S* 1 1 An E x p e r im e n ta l C ou rse i n P r o j e c t T e a ch in g i n G en er a l S c ie n c e * 1 1 U n p u b lish e d M a s t e r ^ t h e s i s , The U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e r n C a l i f o r n i a , Los A n g e le s , 193&* B ackgroun d m a t e r ia l f o r t h e t e a c h in g o f s c i e n c e to r e t a r d e d s tu d e n t s * O n ste a d , G race* f,S c ie n c e f o r R e ta rd ed C h ild r e n in E le m e n ta r y S c h o o ls * 1 1 U n p u b lish e d M a s te r f s t h e s i s , San D ie g o S t a t e C o lle g e , C a l i f o r n i a , 1955* PART I I BASIC SCIENCE EXPERIENCES FOR RETARDED STUDENTS INTRODUCTION TO PART I I A gro u p o f b a s ic s c ie n c e e x p e rim e n ts f o r u se w ith r e ta r d e d s tu d e n ts i n p r o j e c t g ro u p s i n th e W h ittie r U nion H igh S ch o o l D i s t r i c t h a s b een needed* A know ledge o f e le m e n ta ry s c ie n c e sh o u ld be th e p r o p e r ty o f a l l s t u d e n ts i n th e W h i ttie r U nion H igh S ch o o l D i s t r i c t r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e i r a b i l i t y * I t i s th e hope o f th e w r i te r t h a t t h i s g ro u p o f e x p e rim e n ts , c o v e rin g e le m e n ta ry id e a s i n s c ie n c e , w i l l n o t o n ly in c lu d e im p o rta n t f a c t s b u t w i l l a l s o b e o f v a lu e to b o th th e te a c h e r and s tu d e n ts # The e x p e rim e n ts have been in c lu d e d u n d e r v a r io u s s u b je c t m a tte r* S im p lic ity o f th e e x p e rim e n ts h a s been th e k ey n o te* E ase o f o b ta in in g m a t e r i a l s was one o f th e c r i t e r i a * The m a t e r i a l s n eed ed a r e g ro u p ed a c c o rd in g to th e d e p a rtm e n ts o f th e sc h o o l i n w hich th e y may be o b ta in ed* Each e x p e rim e n t h a s one o r more o f th e l e t t e r s o f th e a lp h a b e t fo llo w in g th e t i t l e , d e s ig n a tin g w here th e m a te r ia l s n eed ed may be found* E ach d e p a rtm e n t o f th e sc h o o l w here s u p p lie s may be p ro c u re d i s d e s ig n a te d b y th e name and l e t t e r o f th e a lp h a b e t i n t h e s o u rc e s o f m a te r ia l* HOCKS A W SOIL HOCKS AND SOIL E x p e r ie n c e Mo* 1* S tu d y in g a s i n g l e r o c k * S eleet~ ~ a s in g le ^ r o c k f o r stu d y * S a n d sto n e and c o n g lo m e r a te r o c k sv A ) a r e e a s i l y o b t a in a b le from th e W h it t ie r H i l l s . I f I t i s f l a t , i t i s p r o b a b ly a p i e c e or la y e r from some se d im e n ta r y fo r m a tio n * B reak th e c o n g lo m e r a te ro ck w ith a hammer and l e t th e s t u d e n t s s e e th e w a te r worn r o c k s o f q u a rtz * T h is p r e s e n t s an o b v io u s q u e s tio n * E x p e r ie n c e Ho* 2* E xam in in g sa n d w ith a m a g n ify in g g la s s * O b ta in r i v e r and c o n s t r u c t io n sa n d '® ' . Exam ine a s m a ll am ount o f san d w ith th e lo w pow er o b j e c t i v e o f a m ic r o sc o p e * O b serv e t h e q u a r t z , th e m o st common m in e r a l on e a r th * C o n n ect t h i s w it h s a n d s t o n e , a se d im e n ta r y r o c k '^ ) # E x p e r ie n c e Mo. 3* Cement m akes man- made r o c k * M ix w it h w a te r and pour i n a s u i t a b l e m old* Mix cem en t and san d t o g e t h e r I n p o r p o r t io n s o f tw o sa n d , one cem ent^® '* When t h e s e a r e h a r d e n e d , h a v e s t u d e n t s e x a m in e . A lth o u g h s im p le , i n t e r e s t and q u e s t io n s u s u a l l y f o llo w * E x p e r ie n c e Mo* if* To show t h e d i f f e r e n c e s i n s o i l p a r t i c l e s * S e c u r e sa m p les o f s o il'l'E ) from s e v e r a l d i f f e r e n t p l a c e s ; I f s tu d e n t s b r in g th em , so much th e b e t t e r * Try t o g e t e x a m p les o f a sa n d y , lo a m , c l a y , and humus s o i l . P la c e s e v e r a l h a n d f u ls o f s o i l i n a ja r * P i l l th e j a r '® ' w it h w a te r and sh ak e* L e t sta n d f o r s e v e r a l h o u r s . The p a r t i c l e s w i l l s e t t l e a c c o r d in g t o w e ig h t* B i s c u s s t h i s w it h th e s t u d e n t s * E x p e r ie n c e No* To show t h a t s o i l may c o n t a in w a te r * ^ L e t t e r s i n p a r e n t h e s i s i n d i c a t e s o u r c e s s u g g e s te d * 36 P la c e some s o i l i n a t h i n g l a s s d i s h ( A) and h e a t i t c a u tio u s l y o v er a s m a ll flam e# Cover th e j a r and w a te r w i l l b e o b se rv e d to co n d en se on th e co o l s id e s * P ic k a tr u s tw o r th y s tu d e n t t o o b ta in some a p p a r e n tly d ry s o il * E x p e rie n c e Ho* 6* Why i s th e s o i l t h a t i s on to p so n e c e s s a r y ? lP*~*possible", have one o f th e s tu d e n ts o b ta in some s o i l from a d e p th o f th r e e f e e t* An e x c a v a tio n i s a good p la c e f o r th is * O b ta in some to p s o i l from a flo w e r b e d , e tc * P la n t common se e d s such a s b e a n s ^ ) o r r a d i s h e s ( E ) i n each o f th e p o ts * W ater and o b se rv e * V o cab u lary * s o i l t o p s o i l humus ro c k s sand sa n d sto n e s e d im e n ta ry p ar t i d e s cem ent lim e g r a in s S u g g e ste d q u e s tio n s * 1* What i s s o i l ? 2* How d o es s o i l e f f e c t u s ? 3* Does s o i l have a i r i n i t ? h* What a r e ro c k s ? 5* How much o f th e e a r t h i s made o f ro c k s ? 6* What a r e ro c k s made by w a te r c a l l e d ? 7* How do v o lc a n o e s make ro c k s ? 8* Do ro c k s e v e r become s m a lle r? 9* What makes stre a m s lo o k muddy? 10* Why i s cem ent l i k e a ro c k ? 11* What k in d o f ro c k d id you f i n d aro u n d y o u r y a rd ? 12* What a r e some o f th e u s e s t h a t we g e t from ro c k s ? 13* How can you see th e m in e ra ls in ro c k s ? llj.* What ty p e o f s o i l h a s th e l i t t l e s t p ie c e s i n i t ? 15* Why a re some p la c e s more ro c k y th a n o th e r s ? q u a r tz ig n e o u s co n g lo m erate la y e r s c o n c re te m in e ra l loam c la y p o ru s e r o s io n f e r t i l e THE PLANTS ABOUND US THE PLANTS ABOUND US E x p e r ie n c e No* 1 . How t o grow r o o t h a i r s * T i a i r s can e a s i l y be s e e n on th e r o o t s o f m u stard o r r a d is h s e e d ( E ) grow n on damp f l a n n e l ' 1 -*' o r h e a v y b l o t t i n g p a p e r . S e e d s s t a n d in g i n a sou p p l a t e c o n t a in in g w a te r w i l l p ro d u ce v e r y good sp ec im en s* E x p e r ie n c e No* 2* Do r o o t s a b so rb w a ter and su sp e n d e d s o l i d s ? T hree s i m i la r p la n ts v E ) a r e i n s e r t e d i n t o t e s t tu b e s c o n t a in in g 1 , w a te r ; 2 , r e d in k 'A )* 3 , a s u s p e n s io n o f con go r e d ( E ) . A f t e r a fe w d a y s 2 w i l l be fou n d t o be c o lo r e d ; 1 and 3 u n c o lo r e d , h a v in g o n ly a b so r b e d w a ter* E x p e r ie n c e N o. 3* How d o e s w a te r g e t t o th e to p o f t r e e s ? Make a c a r r o t osm om eter by s e l e c t i n g a c a r r o t ( B ) w h ich i s f r e e o f b r e a k s i n i t s s u r fa c e * W ith a sh a rp k n if e or an a p p le c o r e r , c u t a h o le i n th e to p o f th e c a r r o t a b o u t t h r e e f o u r t h s o f an in c h d e e p . P i l l th e c a v i t y w it h a c o n c e n tr a te d s o l u t i o n o f s u g a r ( B ) # xn~ s e r t a t i g h t l y f i t t i n g , o n e - h o le c o r k 'A ) o r rubb er sto p p e r 'A T w h ich c a r r i e s two so d a s t r a w s p u s h e d t o g e t h e r o r a le n g t h o f g l a s s tu b in g * P la c e i n a ja r o f w a te r f o r a fe w h o u r s . S o l u t io n w i l l r i s e i n tu b e s e v e r a l in c h e s * E x p e r ie n c e N o. If.* How a r e r o o t s a f f e c t e d by w a te r ? S e l e c t a sp r o u te d s e e d t h a t i s s t r a i g h t * P ie r c e th e s e e d w ith a lo n g p in o r n e e d le and s t i c k t h i s i n t o a co rk * P la c e some damp c o t t o n or b l o t t i n g p a p e r '1 *' i n a b o t t l e . P u t th e c o r k and s e e d l i n g i n th e b o t t l e * P la c e th e b o t t l e i n a d a rk c u p b o a rd . L e t s t u d e n t s o b s e r v e * E x p e r ie n c e No* £ • G erm in a tin g p o l l e n g r a in s * ^ L e t t e r s i n p a r e n t h e s is i n d i c a t e s o u r c e s s u g g e s te d * 39 | S ecu re s e v e r a l flo w e rs (E ) in w hich th e p o lle n h a s form ed on th e stam ens* Shake p o lle n fro m e a c h flo w e r on d i f f e r e n t p ie c e s o f b la c k o r d a rk p a p e r ^ ) * Ob s e rv e each ty p e o f p o lle n w ith a m a g n ify in g g l a s s and n o te any d if f e r e n c e s * i E x p e rie n c e No* 6* * What i s b a c t e r i a ? Borrow a m i c r o s c o p e ( A ) f p O B 1 th e s c ie n c e d e p a rtm e n t. Make a s o lu t i o n o f y e a s tv ^ ) , su g ar(B )^ and w ater* P la c e a few d ro p s o f th e ^ s u g a r s o l u t i o n w hich c o n ta in s y e a s t on a g la s s s lid e ( A ) and o b se rv e i t u n d e r th e m ic ro s c o p e 'A )# f r y b o th low and h ig h pow er o b je c tiv e s * V o c a b u lary . p l a n t s m o is tu re g e rm in a te m ic ro sc o p e s u s p e n s io n r o o t s c o n c e n tr a te d s o l u t i o n osm o sis b a c t e r i a m agnify le n s g r a v i t y p r e s s u r e s w e llin g s p r o u t se e d c e l l s a b so rb s ta r c h y e a s t tu b e p o lle n p a r t i c l e S u g g e ste d q u e s tio n s . 1* What a r e p la n ts ? 2# How do th e y a f f e c t u s ? 3* What i s b a c t e r i a ? 4 * Are p l a n t s n e c e s s a r y t o u s ? 5* Why a re th e r e d i f f e r e n t k in d s o f p l a n t s ? 6* How do p l a n t s ta k e i n fo o d ? 7* How do p l a n t s make fo o d ? 8* What a r e se e d s n e c e s s a r y to u s ? 9* Can you name some p l a n t s t h a t a r e p a r t o f o u r fo o d ? 10* What do p l a n t s p ro v id e f o r u s b e s id e s our fo o d ? 11* Do a l l p l a n t s p ro d u ce s e e d s? 12# Why do s e e d s n eed m o is tu re in o rd e r to g e rm in a te ? 13# Why a r e some p l a n t s c a l l e d t r e e s , o t h e r s b u sh e s? 1q# Why do we n eed to add f e r t i l i z e r to th e s o i l ? lf># What a r e th e r o o t s of a p l a n t f o r ? O U K WEATHEE QUH WEATHEE E x p e r ie n c e N o. 1 . How Much d id i t r a in to d a y ? I t i s e a s y t o make a sim p le r a in gau ge u s in g a f u n n e l v^) and b o t t l e , w it h a m ea su r in g c y l i n d e r ' ^ ) t o m easu re th e volum e o f w a t e r . The f u n n e l s h o u ld h a v e a v e r y sh a rp V e r t i c a l e d g e , or a h o r i z o n t a l l i p t o p r e v e n t r a in d r o p s b o u n c in g o u t a g a in . The w h ole a p p a r a tu s s h o u ld b e b u r le d so t h a t th e f u n n e l i s a fe w in c h e s above ground l e v e l . A la r g e b o t t l e d ) ca n be f i l l e d t o e x a c t l y one in c h . T h is w a te r , In t u r n , ca n be p ou red i n t o th e b o t t l e u s e d f o r th e g a u g e . A p a p er g au ge can b e made t o m easu re th e in c h e s o f r a i n . T h is a l s o s e r v e s t o h e lp th e s t u d e n t s to e x p e r ie n c e th e u n i t s o f m easurem ent on a r u l e r . E x p e r ie n c e N o . 2 . What a r e tem p er a tu r e s ? S e c u r e a th erm o m eter(A ) w ith a f a h r e n h e it s c a l e . E x p la n a t io n i s f i r s t n e c e s s a r y . E a c h , o r s e v e r a l s t u d e n t s c a n k eep an h o u r ly r e c o r d o f th e te m p e r a tu r e c h a n g e s . Therm om eter r e a d in g s ta k a a a t home i n th e m orn in g and e v e n in g h e l p to c r e a t e i n t e r e s t . D is c u s s th e r e c o r d h ig h and lo w i n th e U n ite d S t a t e s . ( - 7 0 & 1 3 t ) E x p e r ie n c e N o. 3 . D oes a i r expand when h e a t e d ? To show t h a t a i r ex p a n d s when h e a t e d , f i t an e l e c t r i c l i g h t b u lb f l a s k ' w o r a b o t t l e w it h a 1 - h o le s t o p p e r ' A ) w h ich h a s a p i e c e o f r u b b e r h o s e 'A ) th r o u g h i t . P la c e th e en d o f t h e tu b e i n a s m a ll b o t t l e o f w a t e r . H ea t th e f l a s k and o b s e r v e th e g a s b u b b lin g th r o u g h th e w a t e r . Then c o o l th e b o t t l e b y p o u r in g w a te r o v er th e b o t t l e . O b serve th e w a ter r i s i n g i n th e b o t t l e * E x p e r ie n c e N o. 1^. How d o e s m o is tu r e g e t i n t o a i r ? P la c e a c e llo p h a n e b a g (D ) o v e r a p o t t e d p la n t and ^ L e t t e r s i n p a r e n t h e s is i n d i c a t e s o u r c e s s u g g e s t e d . lj.2 j c l o s e th e en d a b o u t th e stem w it h a r u b b e r band# L e t th e s t u d e n t s o b s e r v e th e c o l l e c t e d m o is tu r e * E x p e r ie n c e No# 5* Where d o e s m o is tu re g o ? Wet a l a r g e ragvC;and b a la n c e i t on on e end o f a y a r d s t ic k # O b serve t h e r a g i n an h ou r or so # A sk why th e a p p a r a tu s i s now i n a s t a t e o f im b a la n ce# E x p e rie n c e No. 6 D oes o u r b r e a th c o n t a in m o is t u r e ? One or s e v e r a l s t u d e n t s can b low t h e i r b r e a th on th e s u r f a c e o f a m ir r o r ( C) . The m o is tu r e c o l l e c t e d s h o u ld be f o llo w e d b y q u e s t io n s # E x p e r ie n c e No# 7* Why d o e s i t r a i n ? T h is e x p e r im e n t t a k e s some p r e p a r a tio n b u t i s w o rth th e e f f o r t * P la c e a box o f p la n t seedlings(E) on th e t a b le # P la c e a m e ta l t r a y ( w a b o u t 1 6 in c h e s b y 2 0 in c h e s ab o v e th e b ox o f s e e d l i n g s and s u p p o r t i t * P la c e p i e c e s o f c r a c k e d i c e on th e tray# P la c e a flask(A) c o n t a in in g w a te r o v e r a h e a t s o u r c e s o t h a t th e steam w i l l i s s u e b e tw e en th e s e e d l i n g s and th e tr a y # The f l a s k s e r v e s a s th e e a r t h so u r c e o f w a te r # T h is e v a p o r a te s and r i s e s up t o th e c o o l t r a y w h ich r e p r e s e n t s t h e c o ld u p p er l a y e r s o f a i r ab o v e th e e a r th * H ere th e m o is tu r e c o n d e n s e s on th e t r a y and d r ip s b ack on th e s e e d l in g s a s r a in * E x p e r ie n c e No# 8# What d o e s warm a i r d o ? S tu d e n ts can ta k e th erm om eter r e a d in g s n ea r th e f l o o r , on a d e s k , and n e a r th e c e i l i n g # They can a l s o do t h i s a t home* Any so u r c e o f smoke can b e o b s e r v e d f o llo w e d by d i s c u s s i o n a s t o why i t r i s e s # V o c a b u la r y w e a th e r a i r h o t a i r m o is tu r e c o ld a ir expand c u r r e n t c o n t r a c t io n w ind v e l o c i t y r e c o r d (w e a th e r ) in s tr u m e n ts b a r o m ete r t o steam v ap o r w ind sp eed i n d ic a t o r w e a th e r vane f l a s k c o n d e n s a tio n e v a p o ra tio n m o is t r a i n f r o s t c lo u d s te m p e ra tu re S u g g e ste d q u e s tio n s * 1* How do w © m easure te m p e ra tu re ch an g es? 2# What makes th e w ind blow ? What i s the d if f e r e n c e betw een warm and c o ld a i r ? 5* What i s hum id a i r ? 6# Does th e w ea th er e f f e c t you? How? 7# What i s w a te r v ap o r? 8* What i s r a i n ? 9 . What makes i t r a i n ? 10* How does m o is tu re g e t i n t o th e a i r ? 11# Why i s th e a i r i n th e d e s e r t d ry ? 12# What i s t r o p i c a l a i r ? 13* What i s f r o s t ? ltf.* Why d o e s r a i n c o o l o f f th e a i r ? 1>* What makes c lo u d s ? Does warm a i r r i s e ? s&mv'id s i i am ms h x io GUB SUN AND ITS PLANETS E x p e r ie n c e No# 1# How d o e s th e moon move around th e e a r t h ? U se an y s u i t a b l e g lo b e v *’)' t o r e p r e s e n t t h e e a r th * Bend a w ir e c o a t h a n g e r (D ) i n t o a sta n d * Punch two h o l e s i n a t e n n i s b a l l ^ ) and m ount on th e w ir e s t a n d . The m ovem ent o f th e m oon, th e e a r t h * s d e c l i n a t i o n , and th e m oon’ s o r b i t i n g can s u c c e s s f u l l y b e shown b y t h i s m eans* E x p e r ie n c e No* 2# What i s d a y and n i g h t ? O b ta in a d ro p c o r d f w w ith a 1 $0 w a t t b u lb 'w . L e t t h i s b u lb r e p r e s e n t th e s u n . Any s u i t a b l e g lo b e w i l l do f o r th e e a r t h . By tu r n in g th e g lo b e and w a tc h in g th e sh adow move o v e r th e g l o b e , a s a t i s f a c t o r y e x p la n a t io n o f d a y and n ig h t c a n b e e x p la in e d . The same a p p a r a tu s can be u s e d f o r e x p la in in g th e s e a s o n s # E x p e r ie n c e p r o v e s t h i s d i f f i c u l t f o r lo w a b i l i t y g r o u p s . E x p e r ie n c e No# 3* I s i t a l l t h e same moon? Over th e p e r io d o f a lu n a r m onth h ave th e s t u d e n t s draw a p i c t u r e o f th e moon a s s e e n b y t h e m s e lv e s . I t i s s u g g e s t e d t h a t t h e y b e g in a t th e new moon p h a se # T h is i s a good e x p e r im e n t t o a c t a s a b a s i s f o r fu r th e r q u e s t io n in g # E x p e r ie n c e No# If# Why do we h a v e s e a s o n s ? U se a h o llo w r u b b e r b a l l su c h a s a t e n n i s b a ll( G ) t o r e p r e s e n t th e e a r t h . Push a f i v e in c h p i e c e o f w irev ® ) th r o u g h th e b a l l to r e p r e s e n t th e e a r t h ’ s a x i s . Draw a c i r c l e on a p i e c e o f c a r d b o a r d '^ ) to r e p r e s e n t th e e a r t h ’ s o r b it # Mark th e fo u r q u a r te r p o i n t s , N o r th . S o u th , E a s t , and W est# Hand an e l e c t r i c lam p 'C / a b o u t f i v e in c h e s ab ove th e c e n t e r o f th e ca rd b o a rd (H ) t o r e p r e s e n t th e sun* P la c e t h e ^ L e t t e r s i n p a r e n t h e s is i n d i c a t e s o u r c e s s u g g e s te d # ij.6j b a l l r e p r e s e n t in g t h e e a r t h a t th e fo u r p o i n t s w it h th e e a r t h ’ s a x i s s im u la t in g t w e n t y - t h r e e and o n e - h a l f d e g r e e s # O b serv e t h e am ount o f th e b a l l t h a t i s j a lw a y s i l l u m i n a t e d • O b serve w here th e d i r e c t r a y s | o f th e su n s t r i k e * I n e a c h o f th e f o u r p o s i t i o n s I o b s e r v e w h ich h e m isp h e r e r e c e i v e s th e s l a n t i n g r a y s o f th e sun* V o c a b u la r y . p la n e t s sun e a r t h moon o r b i t d e c l i n a t i o n s e a s o n s s u n ’ s r a y s a n g le s o la r s u n r is e s u n s e t fo u r s e a s o n s e n e r g y shadow d i s t a n c e o f moon r e v o l u t i o n e q u a to r r e v o l v e s t i d e s g r a v i t y fo u r p o in t s o f th e com pass t w i l i g h t d i s t a n c e o f su n n ig h t g a s ( e o u s ) d a y s o l i d e c l i p s e s t a r p h a se e c l i p s e S u g g e s te d q u e s t io n s * 1 * What a r e s t a r s ? 2* What i s a p la n e t ? 3* Why do we h a v e s e a s o n s ? 4 * Do we know how many e a r t h s t h e r e a r e ? (s p a c e ) 5* How many tim e s arou n d th e e a r t h i s t h e d i s t a n c e t o th e su n ? ( c o n c e p t io n o f d i s t a n c e ) 6 * What i s th e d i f f e r e n c e b e tw e en d a y and n ig h t ? 7* C ould we g e t a lo n g w it h o u t th e su n? 8 * Why do o b j e c t s f a l l t o th e grou n d ? 9* What d o e s th e w ord lu n a r mean? 10* What i s a n o th e r common word f o r o r b i t ? 11* Where d o e s th e m oon’ s l i g h t come from ? 12* Where a r e th e p o l e s o f th e e a r th lo c a t e d ? 13* How h o t i s th e sun? 14 * Why d o e s th e su n , m oon, and e a r t h s t a y a c e r t a i n d i s t a n c e from e a c h o th e r ? If?* Why d o e s a r o c k e t k eep c i r c l i n g t h e e a r th or moon? lo * I s t h e r e any l i f e on th e moon? 17* I s t h e r e l i f e on o th e r p la n e t s ? 18* D o es th e moon h a v e a ir ? 19* What a r e some t h in g s we w i l l h a v e t o know b e f o r e we t r a v e l i n sp a c e ? W H A T IS AIR AN D AIB PRESSURE? W HAT IS AIR A M D AIR PRESSURE? i . E x p e r ie n c e Ho* 1 . Where do we f in d a i r ? S e c u r e a b r ic k v ^ T and p la c e i t i n a c o n ta in e r o f w a te r# M o tie e th e e v id e n c e o f a ir * P lu n g e a n a r r o w -n e c k e d b o t t l e ( A ) m outh down i n t o a b a s i n o f w a te r # T i l t s lo w ly # P la c e a h a n d fu l o f s o i l v S ) i n a b ea k erv A ) Q f w a ter# A sk s t u d e n t s w h at t h e y o b se r v e d ? E x p e r ie n c e Ho# 2# D oes a i r ta k e up s p a c e ? P la c e a fu n n elT A X T n th e n e c k o f a b o t t le v B ) and s e a l w it h c la y ( A ) o r some o th e r s u i t a b l e m a t e r ia l# Pour w a te r s l o w l y i n t o th e fu n n e l# A sk s t u d e n t s why th e w a ter s to p p e d f lo w in g i n t o t h e b o t t l e # A f t e r w a te r h a s s to p p e d f lo w in g , p u n c tu r e s e a l i n g m a t e r ia l and a sk s t u d e n t s t o o b s e r v e * E x p e r ie n c e Ho# 3* D oes a i r make p r e s s u r e ? Subm erge a d r in k in g g l a s s i n a la r g e c o n t a in e r o f w a ter# Be su r e th e g l a s s i s f i l l e d w it h w a te r# L i f t th e g l a s s up w it h t h e m outh down u n t i l th e g l a s s I s n e a r ly o u t o f th e w ater# Why d o e s th e w a te r n o t r u n o u t o f th e g l a s s ? E x p e r ie n c e Ho# t}.# D oes a i r make a i r p r e s s u r e ? O b ta in an em pty m im eogrsph f l u i d c a n ( w * Pour a cup o f w a te r i n t o th e can* H eat th e w a te r w ith th e cap o f f # When th e w a te r i s b o i l i n g , q u ic k ly cap# The can w i l l p a r t i a l l y c o lla p s e * T h is e x p e r im e n t i s th e b a s i s f o r s e v e r a l q u e s tio n s # E x p e r ie n c e Ho# 5# M easu rin g a i r p r e s s u r e # O b ta in an a n e r o id b a r o m ete r(A ) from t h e s c ie n c e d ep a rtm en t# I n c h e s o f m ercu ry , e t c . a r e b ey o n d th e ^ L e t t e r s I n p a r e n t h e s is i n d i c a t e s o u r c e s s u g g e s t e d l ^ g sc o p e o f th e s e s t u d e n t s * S in c e th e y s e e few i n s t r u m e n ts , c o n s id e r a b le i n t e r e s t i s sh ow n, regazdL ess o f t h e i r co m p reh en sio n * E x p e r ie n c e No* 6 * A ir n r e s s u r e and a s ip h o n * S e c u r e tw o t a l l g l a s s b o t t l e s ( S ) and a s u i t a b l e le n g t h o f ru b b er tu b in g sA ) • P i l l t h e b o t t l e s a b o u t o n e - h a l f f u l l * Change th e s ip h o n in g b y v a r y in g th e h e i g h t o f th e b o t t l e s . A lth o u g h s im p le , t h i s demon s t r a t i o n c r e a t e s a number o f q u e s t io n s * E x p e r ie n c e No* ? • C h e m ic a ls i n th e a i r * Hang a m u s lin b a g W o f ir o n n a i l s ' ® ) o r s t e e l w o o l'A ; from a cork^A) i n t h e to p o f a lam p ch im n ey (A) S ta n d th e chim ney i n a s a u c e r o f w a ter* H ave a s t u d e n t mark th e l e v e l o f t h e w a te r a t th e s t a r t o f th e e x p e r im e n t. A f t e r a p e r io d o f tim e , th e w a te r w i l l r i s e up th e tu b e * V o ca b u la ry * a i r c o n t r a c t io n p r e s s u r e s ip h o n g a s e s vacuum b a r o m ete r volum e sp a c e exp an d S u g g e s te d q u e s t io n s * 1* How do we know t h a t a i r h a s w e ig h t? 2* I s a i r a g a s ? 3* D o es a i r make a p r e s s u r e ? 4 * D o es a i r ta k e up sp a c e ? 5* Are th e r e c h e m ic a ls i n t h e a i r ? o* I s a i r n e c e s s a r y f o r u s ? 7* How d o e s a i r h e lp u s i n o u r work? 8 * I s th e r e more a i r on to p o f th e m o u n ta in s? 9* Can a ir b e m easu red ? 10* I s a i r ev er y w h e re ? 11* Do p l a n t s u s e th e same t h in g o u t o f a i r t h a t we do? 12* Why do b a llo o n s b u r s t when th e y a r e h e a te d ? EXPERIMENTING WITH ELECTRICITY EXPERIMENTING WITH ELECTRICITY E x p e r ie n c e Ho* 1# S t a t i c e l e c t r i c i t y i s e v ery w h ere * Tear up a p i e c e o f p a p er i n t o sm a ll p i e c e s * Rub a p l a s t i c comb w it h a p ie c e o f f u r '^ - ) , o r th r o u g h y o u r h a ir * N o t ic e a t t r a c t i o n o f p ap er* S e c u r e a f l u o r e s c e n t l i g h t b u lb '® )* Rub i t b r i s k l y w ith a p i e c e o f f l a n n e l i n a d a rk en ed room* S p rea d a p i e c e o f n ew sp ap er on th e w a l l and r u b i t w ith a p e n c il* N o te how th e p a p e r s t i c k s t o idle w a ll* The p h y s ic s d e p a r tm en t may lo a n t h e i r s t a t i c m a c h in e '^ ) • The d e m o n s tr a tio n o f s t a t i c e l e c t r i c i t y i s m ost d r a m a tic t o a l l s tu d e n ts * E x p e r ie n c e Ho* 2* E l e c t r i c i t y t r a v e l s th r o u g h a i r * To make a d e v ic e f o r d e t e c t i n g c h a r g e s o f e l e c t r i c i t y , a j a r - some w ir e '® ) , and p i e c e s o f l i g h t f o i l or p a p e r a r e n eed ed * A waxed c o r k i s n e c e s s a r y t o p r e v e n t th e c h a r g e from le a k in g a w a y . Push a L -sh a p e d p i e c e o f co p p er w ir e '® ) th ro u g h i t , and h a n g .a p i e c e o f t i s s u e p a p er or s t r i p o f alum inum f o i l ' •& ) t o th e lo w e r end* I f a ch a r g ed b od y i s b r o u g h t n e a r th e r o d , th e l e a v e s o f th e paper f l y "apart b e c a u se th e y h a v e r e c e i v e d th e same k in d o f ch a rg e* E x p e r ie n c e N o. 3* M aking e l e c t r i c i t y * O b ta in a s t r i p o f c o p p e r '® ) and z i n c ' A ) . S od d er a w ir e t o e a c h s t r i p o f m e t a l . S od d er o n e en d o f th e w ir e t o t h e c e n t e r p o s t o f a f l a s h l i g h t b u lb '® )* S od d er th e o t h e r w ir e t o th e c a s e o f th e b u lb . P la c e t h e s e s t r i p s o f m e ta l i n a sm a ll ja r * Pour i n a d i l u t e s o l u t i o n o f s u lp h u r ic a c id 'A ) and w a te r * The e le m e n t o f th e b u lb w i l l g lo w . E x p e r ie n c e No* I}.* What i s a s w it c h ? ^ L e t t e r s i n p a r e n t h e s is i n d i c a t e s o u r c e s s u g g e s te d * 52 I Make a s im p le s w it c h b y c o n n e c tin g two w ir e s t o a d r y c e l l ' O . C on n ect th e w ir e s to two s t r i p s o f c o p p e r 'C ) # Mount th e s t r i p s on a b o a r d , th e en d o f one o v e r th e o t h e r . Make a c o m p le te c i r c u i t b y c l o s i n g th e en d s* E x p e r ie n c e N o . $ • Why do we u s e f u s e s i n our h o u s e s ? Cut a v e r y t h i n s t r i p o f f o i l (A) an< i c o n n e c t i t b e tw e e n two w ir e s p r o j e c t e d th r o u g h a cork* C o n n ect t h e s e t o tw o d r y c e l l s . E x p e r im e n ta tio n w i l l b e n e c e s s a r y t o o b t a in th e d e s ir e d t h in n e s s o f th e f o i l . L e t a s t u d e n t c l o s e th e c i r c u i t * E x p e r ie n c e N o. 6 . What i s a n e le c t r o m a g n e t ? S e v e r a l d r y c e l l s s h o u ld be o b ta in e d so e a c h o r tw o s t u d e n t s may do t h i s e x p e r im e n t. O b ta in a number o f l a r g e i r o n , n a i l s and two t o t h r e e f e e t o f v a r n is h e d co p p er w ire^ ® ) f o r e a c h n a i l . Wrap a number o f tu r n s o f th e w ir e around e a c h n a i l and c o n n e c t t o th e t e r m in a ls o f a d r y c e l l . S m a ll s t e e l a r t i c l e s may b e p ic k e d up w it h t h i s e le c t r o - m a g n e t . E x p e r ie n c e N o. 7* T a lk in g w it h e l e c t r i c i t y . O b ta in two t e l e g r ap h k e y s (A) and d oor b e l l s ' &) from th e s c i e n c e d e p a r tm e n t. C o n n ect t h e s e to d r y c e l l s . D is c u s s t h e M orse co d e w it h th e s tu d e n ts * C o n s id e r a b le i n t e r e s t h a s b e e n shown by s tu d e n ts s e n d in g m e s sa g e s t o e a c h o t h e r . U s u a lly r e l a t e d q u e s t io n s a r e a s k e d . E x p e r ie n c e N o. 8 . Two k in d s o f c u r r e n t s . C o n n ect t h r e e c e l l s ( w i n p a r a l l e l by a t t a c h in g a l l th e c e n te r b in d in g p o s t s t o one w ir e and a l l th e o u t s id e b in d in g p o s t s t o a n o th e r w ir e * C on n ect th e l e a d w ir e s to a r e c e p t a c l e and i n s e r t a b u lb f o r a o n e - c e l l f l a s h l i g h t ' ^ ' • D is c o n n e c t one o f th e c e l l s and n o te t h a t th e r e i s no d i f f e r e n c e i n th e b r i g h t n e s s . D is c o n n e c t two c e l l s and s t i l l th e b r i g h t n e s s d o e s n o t c h a n g e . C o n n ect t h e c e l l s i n s e r i e s by a t t a c h in g th e w ir e from th e c e n t e r p o s t t o th e o u t s id e p o s t o f th e n e x t 53 c e l l * Two b u lb s a r e n e e d e d f o r t h i s p a r t . U n screw on e and n o t e t h a t th e o th e r a l s o g o e s o u t . D is c u s s C h ristm a s l i g h t s . D e v e lo p th e d i s t i n c t i o n b etw een th e te r n c e l l and b a t t e r y . V o c a b u la r y . e l e c t r i c i t y s t a t i c a t t r a c t i o n f l u o r e s c e n t p o s i t i v e n e g a t iv e ch a r g ed p lu s m inus a c id s w it c h p a r a l l e l s e r i e s f u s e c e l l b a t t e r y m a g n etism f r i c t i o n v o l t ampere ohm b u lb e i r c u i t c o n d u c to r e l e c t r o n s r e s i s t a n c e l i g h t n i n g e n e r g y a t t r a c t i o n tr a n s m it a r c a p p lia n c e S u g g e s te d q u e s t io n s . 1* What i s an e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n t? 2 . Where c a n we o b s e r v e e l e c t r i c i t y i n n a tu r e ? 3* What i s a way t h a t we can c r e a t e e l e c t r i c a l c u r r e n ts ? If. How d o e s e l e c t r i c i t y t r a v e l o v e r w ir e s ? 5>. What a re c o n d u c to r s and n o n -c o n d u c to r s ? o . What i s a s h o r t c i r c u i t ? 7 . How can e l e c t r i c i t y be d a n g e r o u s i n ou r h o u s e s ? 8 . What a r e some o f th e u s e s o f e l e c t r i c i t y ? 9 . How i s th e e l e c t r i c i t y m easu red a t y o u r home? 10* Why a re f u s e s n e c e s s a r y ? 1 1 . How do e l e c t r i c a l a p p lia n c e s u s e e l e c t r i c i t y ? 1 2 . How d o e s a b a t t e r y h o ld th e e l e c t r i c i t y ? 1 3 . How c o u ld an e le c t r o - m a g n e t be u s e f u l t o u s ? llj-. What a re th e two c o n n e c tio n s on e v e r y b a t t e r y c a l l e d ? 1*># Can you name some o f th e t h in g s n o t to do when h a n d lin g a p p lia n c e s w h ich u s e e l e c t r i c i t y ? H O W ALL MACHINES ABE ALIKE H O W ALL MACHINES ARE ALIKE E x p e r ie n c e No* 1* | A stea m m a c h in e » " " U s u a lly a m odel stea m e n g in e (A ) (E ) can b e o b ta in e d from th e s c i e n c e d e p a r tm en t or t h e i n d u s t r i a l a r t s d ep a rtm en t* T h is w o rk in g m odel c r e a t e s a trem en d ou s am ount o f I n t e r e s t * A lth o u g h t h i s I s p r e s e n t in g an exam p le o f some o f th e b a s ic m a ch in e s b e f o r e th e y h a v e b een e x p la in e d , th e I n t e r e s t c r e a te d m akes t h i s d e s ir a b le * Many r e l a t e d q u e s t io n s c o v e r in g h e a t , p r e s s u r e , w here steam e n g in e s a r e u s e d , e td * c a n e a s i l y be I n j e c t e d i n t o th e c l a s s m o tiv a tio n * E x p e r ie n c e No* 2* What i s a l e v e r ? Saw o f f a s t i c k o r b o a r d (E ) so t h a t i t i s th e same h e i g h t a s a h e a v y d e sk or t a b le i n th e c la s sr o o m * T h is w i l l a c t a s th e fu lc ru m * P la c e a n o th e r s t i c k a b o u t th e same l e n g t h on t h is * P la c e th e end o f t h i s s t i c k u n d er th e e d g e and u s e i t a s a l e v e r t o l i f t th e d e sk o r t a b le * N ote t h a t i n l i f t i n g , th e lo n g e r en d t r a v e l s f a r t h e r th a n th e s h o r t end* L o c a tio n may p e r m it a m ore d r a m a tic d e m o n s tr a tio n o u t s i d e . E x p e r ie n c e No* 3* A w h e e l and a x le * Remove t h e c o v e r ft?om a p e n c i l sh a r p e n e r 'C ) ^nd t i e a s t r i n g t i g h t l y around th e end o f th e s h a f t * T ie a w e ig h t on th e s t r i n g ' w and l e t v a r io u s s t u d e n ts w in d th e w e ig h t up* N ote th e sm a ll am ount o f e f f o r t * E x p e r ie n c e No* Ij.* Can a p u l l e y h e lp u s w ork ? Clamp a p i e c e o f wood t o a d esk * T ie a p i e c e o f s t r i n g s e v e r a l f e e t i n le n g t h to th e en d h a n g in g o v e r th e ed g e o f th e d esk * B etw een th e d e s k and th e end o f t h e w ood, t i e a p u l l e y ' ^ ) * Wrap a p i e c e o f s t r i n g -^ L etters i n p a r e n t h e s is i n d i c a t e s o u r c e s s u g g e s te d * 56 around s e v e r a l b ook s and a t t a c h one p u l l e y t o them* The lo n g p i e c e o f s t r i n g sh o u ld th e n g o from th e end o f t h e w ood th r o u g h th e p u l l e y a t t a c h e d to th e b o o k s; j th ro u g h th e p u l l e y a tta c h e d to th e p i e c e o f wood; and i th e n t i e d t o a s m a ll s p r in g b a la n c e * L e t s e v e r a l s t u d e n t s f i r s t w e ig h th e b o o k s , th e n n o te th e number I o f pounds r e q u ir e d t o l i f t th e b o o k s b y p u l l i n g on th e s p r in g b a la n c e and s t r in g * E x p e r ie n c e Mo* 5* What i s a s c r e w ? The e a s i e s t p r o c u r a b le m a t e r ia ls f o r th e e x p e r i m ent a r e a s m a ll h o u se t r a i l e r ja ck C O o r h y d r a u lic a u to m o b ile j a c k 'C ) . Mote th e e a s e w ith w h ich o b j e c t s can be l i f t e d * Mote th e l e s s am ount o f e f f o r t when th e h a n d le i s lo n g e r * T h is d e m o n s tr a tio n p ro m o tes q u e s t i o n s • E x p e r ie n c e Ho* 6 * How do m a c h in e s h e lp u s ? P la c e s e v e r a l h e a v y b o o k s on a b oard * N ote th e pounds o f p u l l n e c e s s a r y t o move th e s e * A s m a ll s p r in g b a l a n c e ^ ) may b e u sed * P la c e s e v e r a l p e n c i l s u n d er th e b o a rd to a c t a s r o l l e r s . A g a in n o te th e pounds o f p u l l n e c e s s a r y * E x p e r ie n c e Ho* ? • How do g e a r s ch a n g e d i r e c t i o n ? A s m a ll p i e c e o f s o f t p in @ '& ), t h r e e b y s i x b y one in c h i s s u i t a b l e , la k e h o le i n th e e x a c t c e n t e r s o f s e v e r a l u s e d b o t t l e c a p s v h ) . S t r a ig h t e n t h e e d g e s o f th e c a p s to make them a s rou n d a s p o s s i b l e . L ay two o f th e c a p s on th e wood so t h a t th e t o o t h l i k e p r o j e c t i o n s m esh t o g e t h e r . F a s t e n them down w ith c a r p e t t a c k s v w 5 make su re t h a t t h e y s t i l l tu r n e a s i l y * Turn one o f th e c a p s and n o te th e d i r e c t i o n t h a t th e o th e r tu r n s * Add a t h ir d ca p and n o t e th e d i r e c t i o n t h a t e a c h tu r n s * V o c a b u la r y w h e e l i n c l i n e d p la n e e x p a n s io n a x le work c ir c u m fe r e n c e l e v e r e n e r g y r a d iu s p u l l e y t o o l s d ia m e te r f r i c t i o n f o r c e th r e a d s b a la n c e fu lc ru m beam w e ig h t g e a r s r e s i s t a n c e d i r e c t i o n h y d r a u lic stea m S u g g e s te d q u e s t io n s * 1* What do m a c h in e s do f o r u s ? 2 . How c o u ld yo u d e c id e t h a t so m e th in g w as a m a ch in e? 3* Where c o u ld an exam p le o f a w h ee l and a x le be fou n d ? k. How d o e s f r i c t i o n h e lp u s ? 5* Name some m a c h in e s t h a t h a v e g e a r s * ©♦ How sh o u ld we ta k e c a r e o f m a c h in e s? 7* -Are a l l m a ch in e s c o m p lic a te d ? 8 * Gan you name some m a ch in e s i n y o u r home? 9 * M ust a l l m a c h in e s h a v e work p u t i n t o them f i r s t ? 10* Why i s a g e a r l i k e a p u lle y ? 1HAT ARE SOUHDS? W H A T ARE SOUNDS? E x p e r ie n c e No* 1* D i f f e r e n t so u n d s* D e m o n stra te d i f f e r e n t so u n d s , su c h a s c r a s h ( d i s h f a l l s and b r e a k s ) ' B ) , th u d ( f a l l i n g w e i g h t ) , c la n g ( b e a t in g s h e e t o f ir o n w ith hammer) c r a c k le ( c e l l o p h a n e ) ^ ) , t i n k l e ( h i t t i n g sp o o n a g a i n s t g l a s s ) (B)^ w h is tle , m oan, e t c * S t u d e n ts a t t h i s l e v e l e n t e r i n to t h i s w it h e n th u sia sm * T h is s e r v e s a s a g o o d in t r o d u c t o r y m o t i v a t io n * A l i s t on th e b o a r d h e l p s t o p r e s e n t sou nd t o th e e n t i r e c l a s s * E x p e r ie n c e No* 2 . D oes a i r c a r r y so u n d ? L e t one p e r so n w h i s t l e ; o t h e r s t u d e n t s i n th e room w i l l h e a r th e sound d i s t i n c t l y * Now send t h e f i r s t p e r s o n i n t o a n o th e r room and l e t him w h i s t l e a g a in * What m akes sound? E x p e r ie n c e No* What a r e s ound w a v e s? S e c u r e a l a r g e s h a llo w p an or d i s h ' ^ ' and f i l l w it h w a ter* D rop a p e b b le i n t o th e c e n t e r and o b s e r v e th e wave m ovem ent* Compare t h i s t o sound w a v es t r a v e l in g th r o u g h a i r * E x p e r ie n c e No* ^.* Our e a r s and s ound * O b ta in a p h o n o g r a p h ^ ) * E x p la in by s im p le d r a w in g s on th e b o a rd how t h e v i b r a t i o n s a re p ro d u ced and c a r r ie d t o our e a r s * E x p e r ie n c e No* 5* How do we t a l k ? iDraw a sim p le f i g u r e e i g h t o u t l i n e on t h e b o a rd o f th e la r y n x * The m ou th , t e e t h , to n g u e , t h r o a t and lu n g s a r e a l l in c lu d e d i n th e p r o d u c tio n o f v o ic e * The sou nd i s p ro d u ced b y v i b r a t i o n s o f tw o t h i n ^ L e t t e r s i n p a r e n t h e s i s i n d i c a t e s o u r c e s s u g g e s t e d . 60! s h e e t s o f membrane c a l l e d th e v o c a l c o r d s w h ich a r e s t r e t c h e d a c r o s s th e sou nd cham ber c a l l e d th e la r y n x * A tr a p d o o r c a l l e d th e e p i g l o t t i s a u t o m a t ic a lly d r o p s | down o v e r t h e la r y n x when one s w a llo w s , “ so t h a t no j fo o d w i l l g o th r o u g h th e w in d p ip e * When th e c o r d s a r e s t r e t c h e d b y th e c o n t r a c t io n o f c e r t a i n m u s c le s i n i th e t h r o a t , a narrow s l i t i s form ed* B i i s c a u s e s th e v i b r a t i o n w h ic h p r o d u c e s sou n d o r our v o ic e * V o ca b u la ry * sound w aves v i b r a t i o n la r y n x p i t c h wave p a t t e r n s membrane a u d it o r y S u g g e s te d q u e s t io n s * 1* How d o e s sound t r a v e l? 2* What a re th e m ain p a r t s o f ou r e a r ? 1* Why are t h e r e d i f f e r e n t k in d s o f sound? I}.* What a re sou n d w aves? 5* How d o e s a p e r s o n h e a r ? o* How f a s t d o e s so u n d t r a v e l ? 7* Can a f a s t a ir p la n e t r a v e l f a s t e r th a n sound? 8 * How can ou r e a r s be in ju r e d ? 9* How d o m r e c e i v e sound th r o u g h a r a d io ? 1 0 * Can sou n d w aves b e se e n ? 1 1 * What i s a n o th e r name f o r ou r v o i c e b ox? 12* How d o e s our v o i c e b o x work? 13* Can yo u g u e s s why a p e r s o n h a s a d e e p v o ic e ? 14 * Why ca n some a n im a ls h e a r so u n d s th a t w e c a n n o t? 15* How do m u s ic a l in s tr u m e n ts make so u n d s? v o c a l c a r d s s p e e d o f sound ech o p a r t s o f th e e a r d e a f n e s s THINGS TO K N O W ABOUT W ATER ! i i THINGS TO K N O W ABOUT W ATER E x p e r ie n c e No# 1 . What i s w a te r made o f ? H eat some m e r c u r ic oxide(A) o v e r a s m a ll fla m e* I n s e r t a p in e s p l i n t e r i n t o th e m outh o f th e t e s t tu b e'-^ ' and o b s e r v e th e b u r s t in g i n t o fla m e * D is c u s s t h i s w ith th e s tu d e n t s * Some d i s c u s s i o n o f o x y g en may f o llo w * O b ta in some s m a ll s t r i p s o f z in c ( A ) and p la c e t h e s e i n a t e s t tu b e jA ) • Pour in a s m a ll am ount o f d i l u t e s u lp h u r ic a c i d ( A ) . S to p p e r th e tu b e w it h a one h o ld r u b b er cork ^ A )* I n s e r t a s h o r t p i e c e o f g l a s s tu b in g (A) i n th e s t o p p e r and r u n a p i e c e o f r u b b er tu b in g (A) to a n o th e r t e s t tu b e in v e r t e d i n a p an o f w a te r* C o l l e c t some o f t h e h y d ro g en * I n s e r t a g lo w in g s p l i n t e r i n t o th e tu b e and l i s t e n f o r th e s m a ll e x p lo s io n * E x p e r ie n c e No* 2* What i s a w a te r t a b l e ? I n s e r t a t h i s t l e tu b e (A ) i n a la r g e c y lin d e r o r jar ( A ) . Be c e r t a i n t h a t t h e b o tto m o f t h e tu b e i s a t th e b o tto m o f th e ja r * Pour i n d r y s o i l u n t i l i t i s n e a r th e to p o f th e j a r . R e p e a t t h i s p r o c e s s * P la n t a s m a ll p la n t '® ) i n e a c h o f th e j a r s . I n o n e , p ou r In w a te r u n t i l c a p i l l a r y a c t i o n w e ts th e r o o t s o f th e p la n t* I n th e o t h e r , p la c e o n ly en ou gh w a te r t o w et th e b o tto m . D is c u s s w a te r t a b l e s w ith t h e s t u d e n t s • E x p e r ie n c e No* 3* How i s ou r w a te r p r o v id e d ? I n m o st s i t u a t i o n s a s tu d y o f th e w a te r sy s te m t h a t s u p p l ie s th e b u ild in g r e p r e s e n t s an i d e a l app roach * The i n v e s t i g a t i o n m igh t b e g in w ith a s h o r t v i s i t t o th e p o in t w here th e w a te r m ain e n t e r s th e b u ild in g * The m e te r and t h e b ra n ch p ip e s t h a t r u n t o v a r io u s p a r t s o f th e b u i ld in g c a n b e s e e n . T h is i s a l s o an o p p o r tu n ity t o s e e some o f th e plu m b in g o f th e s c h o o l # ^ ) ■^L etters i n p a r e n t h e s is i n d i c a t e s o u r c e s s u g g e s te d * 63 E x p e r ie n c e Ho* ij.# How d o e s a h o t w a te r ta n k w ork? W eigh a c a r e f u l l y m ea su red volum e o f c o ld w a te r • W eigh an e q u a l volu m e o f h o t w a te r and com pare th e two w e i g h t s . i*he r e s u l t s sh o u ld h e lp e x p l a in why th e w a te r i n th e to p o f a h o t - w a t e r ta n k r em a in s a t a much h ig h e r te m p e r a tu r e th a n th e w a te r i n th e b o tto m . E x p e r ie n c e Ho* $• Can w a te r be c le a n e d ? F i t a one h o le stopperC -^) c a r r y in g a s h o r t l e n g t h o f g l a s s tu b e i n t o t h e s m a ll en d o f a lam p c h im n e y . P u t c o t t o n w o o l(^ ) i n th e b o tto m an d th e n a l a y e r o f s m a ll p e b b l e s . Wash some c o a r s e s a n d ( E ) w e l l and p la c e a l a y e r ab ove th e p e b b l e s . Then p la c e a la y e r o f f i n e s a n d . P u lv e r iz e some c h a r c o a l ^ ' , m aking a p a s t e and p ou r o v e r th e f i n e s a n d . T h is w h o le p r o c e s s ca n b e r e p e a t e d i f d e s i r e d . P our i n some muddy w a ter and o b s e r v e th e c l e a r w ater d r ip p in g i n t o t h e g l a s s . The c i t y w a ter d ep a rtm en t w i l l p r o v id e m a t e r ia l d e s c r i b in g th e f i l t r a t i o n and p u r i f i c a t i o n o f w a t e r . E x p e r ie n c e H o. 6 . Can we s t e r i l i z e w a te r ? B r in g some w a te r t o th e b o i l i n g p o i n t . D rop i n a s m a ll am ount o f e g g w h i t e d ) . O b serve th e c o a g u l a t i o n and e x p l a in t h a t b a c t e r i a i s a c te d upon i n much th e sam e w ay. E x p e r ie n c e N o. 7* Why do some t h in g s f l o a t b e t t e r th a n o t h e r s ? P la c e an e g g i n a g l a s s o f f r e s h w a te r and o b s e r v e i t . N e x t add s a l t ( B ' to th e w a ter and s e e i f you ca n f l o a t th e e g g . E x p la in th e r e l a t i o n s h i p o f s h i p s r id in g h ig h e r i n o c ea n w a te r th a n i n f r e s h w a t e r . V o c a b u la r y . h y d ro g e n o x y g en m o le c u le t e n s io n g r a v i t y c o n d e n s a t io n p r e s s u r e s o f t w a ter w a te r t a b l e v a p o r d r o p l e t s l i q u i d d e p th i c e c a p i l l a r y tu r b in e w a te r t a b l e c h e m ic a l a c id s t e r i l i z e b a c t e r i a o r g a n ism h a rd w a te r Some s u g g e s t e d q u e s t io n s # 1 * What i s w a te r made o f ? 2# D oes w a te r come i n some o th e r form b e s i d e s a g a s? 3* How ca n we h e lp th e w ater t a b le u n d er u s ? 4 * How d o e s w a te r becom e im pure? > • W © g e t ou r w a te r from th e m o u n ta in s* How d o es g r a v i t y h e lp u s ? 6 * What d o e s f i l t e r i n g w a ter mean? 7* Where d o e s th e a i r g e t i t s w a te r ? 8 * How d o e s w a te r ch an ge to snow and i c e ? 9 * What m akes w a te r go i n t o th e a i r ? 1 0 * Do a l l l i v i n g t h in g s n e e d w a te r ? 1 1 . How do we u s e m ovin g w a te r ? 12* I s th e w a te r l o s t when i t so a k s i n t o th e ground ? 13* How can some p l a n t s and a n im a ls l i v e w ith l e s s w a te r ? 11^. How can p r e s s u r e b e p u t i n t o w a te r ? 15# What h a p p en s when w ater i s h e a te d ? SOM E THINGS HEAT DOES S O B /IE THINGS HEAT DOES E x p e r ie n c e No* 1* What do s o l i d s do when h e a te d ? S e c u r e a la r g e w ood s c r e w ® ) and a sc r e w e y e v ® ). The h ead o f th e sc r e w m u st j u s t go th r o u g h th e sc r e w e y e . S erew e a c h one i n t o th e end o f a s t i c k , l e t t i n g th e sc r e w p r o tr u d e a b o u t one h a l f I n c h . H ea t th e h ead o f th e sc r e w i n a fla m e f o r a w h ile and th e n t r y t o p u t i t o v e r th e h ea d o f th e screw * L e t s e v e r a l s t u d e n ts do t h i s . E x p e r ie n c e No* 2 . How d oe s a th erm om eter w ork? C lo s e th e end o f a g l a s s tu b evA ) b y f la m in g . When c o o l , pour i n some c o lo r e d w a t e r . S e t t h i s tub© i n a b e a k e r f u l l o f w a te r and h e a t . Ask s t u d e n t s t o o b s e r v e w a te r r i s i n g i n th e t u b e . P r a c t ic e w ith m easu rem en t can a l s o be u s e d b y h a v in g th e s t u d e n t s make a te m p e r a tu r e s c a l e . E x p e r ie n c e N o. 3* What i s c o n d u c tio n ? S e c u r e a b ar o f c o p p e r (® ), b r a s s '® ) o r aluminum^®) a b o u t on e f o o t lo n g . S e l e c t a s t u d e n t to h o ld one en d w h ile th e o th e r i s h e ld i n th e end o f a f la m e . H is n a t u r a l r e a c t i o n w i l l b e e v id e n t to th e r e s t o f th e c l a s s • E x p e r ie n c e N o. If.. How d o e s h e a t t r a v e l th ro u g h w a te r ? F i l l .a flaskT A )" w it h w a te r . P u t some p ar t i d e s o f sa w d u st'® ) i n th e w a te r and g i v e them tim e to s e t t l e t o th e b o tto m . H eat th e w a te r . The p a th s ta k e n by th e sa w d u st p a r t i c l e s a r e t h o s e o f c o n v e c t io n c u r r e n t s . E x p e r ie n c e N o. 5* H ea t i s a b so r b e d when s o l i d s m e l t . S e c u r e a sm a ll c o n t a in e r o f ch op p ed i c e '® ) and f i n d i t s tem p er a tu r e w ith a therm om et e r f A J . P la c e ^ L e t t e r s in p a r e n H ie s is I n d ic a t e s o u r c e s s u g g e s te d 67j th e c o n t a in e r o v e r a fla m e and o b s e r v e th e te m p e r a tu r e I u n t i l a l l t h e i c e i s m e lt e d • When d id th e te m p e r a tu r e | b e g in t o r i s e ? Why d id i t n o t r i s e f o r some tim e ? j What becam e o f th e h e a t e n e r g y ? The p r e c e d in g q u e s tio n s sh o u ld b e p r e s e n t e d w h ile th e e x p e r im e n t i s i n p r o c e s s * V o ca b u la ry * s o l i d s l i q u i d s g a s e s c o n d u c tio n c o n v e c t io n r a d i a t i o n e x p a n s io n m e lt in g freezing c o n d e n s a tio n b o i l i n g te m p e r a tu r e d e g r e e f a h r e n h e it c e n t ig r a d e S u g g e s te d q u e s t io n s * 1* How d o e s h e a t t r a v e l from one p la c e t o a n o th e r ? 2* How d o e s h e a t t r a v e l by c o n d u c tio n ? 3* How d o e s h e a t t r a v e l b y c o n v e c tio n ? q.* How can h e a t make t h in g s c o o l? 5* What h ap p en s t o h e a t when a l i q u i d c h a n g e s t o a g a s? o . What a r e good c o n d u c to r s? 7 * What do th erm o m eters do? 8 * D oes wood c o n d u c t h e a t? 9* What h a p p en s w hen w a te r ex p a n d s? 1 0 • What a r e some o f th e h o t t e s t te m p e r a tu r e s t h a t you know o f? 11* What h a p p en s t o a g a s vstien i t i s h e a te d ? 12* How i s th e h e a t o f an a u to m o b ile ta k e n away? 13* G ould we g e t a lo n g w ith o u t th e h e a t o f th e sun? 1 L * .* ^o you th in k t h a t c o ld w o u ld be a la c k o f h e a t? 1 5 * Way do r a i l r o a d s and b r id g e s h a v e s p a c e s b e tw e e n th e p i e c e s o f s t e e l ? THIHGS THAT LIGHT DOES THINGS THAT LIGHT DOES E x p e r ie n c e Ho* 1* How ca n we ch a n g e th e d i r e c t i o n o f l i g h t r a y s ? S e c u r e a comb w it h la r g e t e e t h v ® / . H old t h e comb so t h a t th e l i g h t r a y s s h in e th r o u g h th e t e e t h and f a l l on a p i e e e o f w h it e c a rd b o a r d 'H) • T i l t th e c a rd b o a r d so t h a t th e beams o f l i g h t a r e s e v e r a l in c h e s lo n g and th e n p la c e a m ir r o r d i a g o n a ll y i n t h e i r p a th * N ote t h a t t h e beam s o f l i g h t s t r i k e th e m ir r o r and a r e r e f l e c t e d a t th e same a n g le * Turn th e m i r r o r s l i g h t l y and n o t i c e how t h e s e a n g le s ch an ge * E x p e r ie n c e Ho* 2* What i s r e f l e c t i o n o f l i g h t ? S ta n d two m irrorS T C ) on ed g e w ith th e r e f l e c t i n g s u r f a c e s f a c i n g e a c h o t h e r . P la c e a c o in o r l i g h t e d c a n d le b e tw e en th e m ir r o r s * Look i n one m ir r o r and n o te th e number o f im a g es p rod u ced * D is c u s s how l i g h t r a y s p ro d u ce im ages* E x p e r ie n c e Ho* 3* How can l i g h t h e lp you t o s e e b e h in d y o u r s e l f ? Cut a p i e c e o f c a r d b o a r d (H) n in e in c h e s w id e and tw e lv e in c h e s lo n g * D iv id e th e ca rd b o a r d l o n g i t u d i n a l l y i n t o t h r e e e q u a l p a r ts * Bend t o a U o r tr o u g h s h a p e . Cut fo u r s l o t s , tw o on e a c h s id e o f th e tr o u g h sh a p ed c a r d b o a r d . T hey s h o u ld b e p a r a l l e l to e a c h o t h e r . I n s e r t two m ir r o r s i n th e s l o t s so t h e i r r e f l e c t i n g s u r f a c e s f a c e e a c h o th e r * T h is m akes a cru d e b u t w o rk a b le p e r is c o p e * E x p e r ie n c e No* l^ .* How d o e s l i g h t h e lp u s to s e e sm a ll o b j e c t s ? Make a sim p le m ic r o sc o p e b y ta k in g a p i e c e o f c o p p er w i r e ( s ) an<j m aking a s i n g l e tu r n arou n d a n a i l t o fo rm a lo o p * D ip th e lo o p i n t o w a ter and lo o k th r o u g h i t . O fte n i t w i l l m a g n ify fo u r or f i v e tim e s * E x p e r ie n c e Ho* •^ L etters i n p a r e n t h e s is i n d i c a t e s o u r c e s s u g g e s t e d . 70 D oes s u n l i g h t h a v e .c o l o r ? | S ta n d a tu ia b le r '®' v e r y f u l l o f w a te r on a w indow I le d g e i n b r ig h t s u n l i g h t . L e t i t p r o j e c t a l i t t l e j o v e r th e i n s i d e ed g e o f th e w indow l e d g e . P la c e a j s h e e t o f w h ite p a p e r on t h e f l o o r and you w i l l b e a b le t o s e e a sp ec tru m b a n d . E x p e r ie n c e No* 6 # How do l e n s e s a f f e c t l i g h t r a y s ? On a su n n y d a y p la c e th r e e d ro p s o f m ilk i n a g l a s s o f w a t e r . Punch a s m a ll h o le in a p i e c e o f b la c k p a p e r '® ' and h o ld th e p a p er on th e su n n y s i d e o f th e g l a s s . A c l e a r beam o f l i g h t w i l l s h in e th r o u g h th e g l a s s • P la c e t h e h o le J u s t b e lo w t h e l e v e l o f th e w ater s u r fa c e and n o te th e d i r e c t i o n o f t h e l i g h t beam . Have th e s t u d e n t s o b s e r v e th e b e n d in g o f t h e l i g h t beam . An e l e c t r i c l i g h t so u r c e c a n be s u b s t i t u t e d f o r s u n l i g h t • V o ca b u la ry # l i g h t l e n s e beam r e f r a c t i o n r e f l e c t i o n p a r a l l e l a n g le m a g n ify c o lo r p r ism S u g g e s te d q u e s t i o n s . 1 . What i s l i g h t ? 2 . D oes l i g h t a lw a y s f o l l o w i n a s t r a i g h t l i n e ? 3 . D oes l i g h t c o n t a in d i f f e r e n t c o lo r s ? 4 * How d o e s l i g h t h e lp u s s e e ? 5# What d o e s a l e n s e do t o l i g h t - 6 . What a r e some o f th e ways th a t' we u s e l i g h t ? 7 . I s s u n l i g h t d i f f e r e n t th a n o th e r l i g h t ? 8 . D oes l i g h t go up i n t o t h e sk y f o r e v e r ? 9 * Gan we t h in k o f some d i f f e r e n t ex a m p les o f r e f l e e t i o n ? 1 0 . How do our e y e s r e c e i v e p ic t u r e s ? m ic r o sc o p e p e r is c o p e r a y p r o j e c t m ir r o r fo c u s r e v e r s e s u n l i g h t SCHOOL SOUBCES OP MATERIALS SCHOOL SOURCES OP MATERIAL D e s ig n a t io n A* S c ie n c e d ep a rtm en t a n e r o id b a r o m e te r b ea k er b o t t l e b u n sen b u rn er c a n d le c e llo p h a n e b ag c h a r c o a l con go r e d c o r k , o n e h o le c o r k s , v a r io u s f l a s k f o i l fu n n e l f u r g l a s s s l i d e g l a s s tu b in g lamp chim ney m e a su r in g c y lin d e r D e s ig n a t io n B# C a f e t e r ia b o t t l e b o t t l e c a p s c e llo p h a n e bag c a r r o t d r in k in g g l a s s j a r s m e r c u r ic o x id e m ic r o sc o p e p u l le y s ru b b er h o s e s e a l in g wax s e d im e n ta r y r o c k s p r in g b a la n c e s t a t i c m ach in e steam e n g in e s u lp h u r ic a c id t e s t tu b e th erm om eter t h i s t l e tu b e t r ip o d m a g n ify in g g l a s s w atch g l a s s z in c s t r i p s s a l t sod a s tr a w s sp oon su g a r D e s ig n a t io n C* M a in ten a n ce d ep a rtm en t a u to ja c k d rop c o r d d ry c e l l f l a s h l i g h t b u lb f l o u r e s c e n t l i g h t b u lb m e ta l t r a y m im eograph f l u i d can m ir r o r p e n c i l sh a r p e n e r r a g s s t r i n g ta c k s t r a i l e r ja c k 150 w a tt b u lb D e s ig n a t io n D . Home M aking d e p a r tm en t c o t t o n w ool c r a c k e d i c e e g g w h it e f l a n n e l la r g e to o t h e d comb m u s lin s a l t w ir e c o a t h a n g er y e a s t D e s ig n a t io n E . I n d u s t r i a l A r ts d e p a r tm e n t D e s ig n a t io n F . B a s ic C ou rse d ep a rtm en t g lo b e D e s ig n a t io n C r * P h y s ic a l E d u c a tio n d e p a r tm en t ph onograp h t e n n i s b a l l s w h i s t l e D e s ig n a t io n H* F in e A r ts d ep a rtm en t* b l o t t i n g p a p e r c a rd b o a r d b r ic k b r a s s rod cem en t c o n s t r u c t io n san d cop p er r o d co p p e r s t r i p s c o p p e r w ir e f lo w e r s ir o n n a i l s ir o n rod m u sta rd s e e d r a d is h se e d sa w d u st s e e d f l a t s m a ll b o a rd s s m a ll p l a n t s s o d d e r in g I r o n s o i l sa m p les s p r in g b a la n c e ste a m e n g in e s t e e l w ool ta c k s t o p s o i l w ood screw s
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Nielsen, Tom Frederik
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Basic science experiences for retarded groups at the ninth and tenth grade level.
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Master of Science
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Education,Science education,Special Education
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University of Southern California
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University of Southern California. Libraries
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education, sciences,education, special,OAI-PMH Harvest
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masters theses
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The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...
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education, sciences
education, special