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University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
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An investigation of unfounded beliefs of eighth grade students.
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An investigation of unfounded beliefs of eighth grade students.
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AN INVESTIGATION OF UNFOUNDED BELIEFS OF EIGHTH GRADE STUDENTS A P r o j e c t P r e s e n te d t o t h e F a c u lt y o f t h e Sch ool o f E d u c a tio n The U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a In P a r t i a l F u l f i l l m e n t o f t h e R eq u irem en ts f o r t h e D egree M a ste r o f S c ie n c e in E d u c a tio n by K enneth L. Buckner Ju n e 1960 UMI Number: EP49812 All rights reserved INFORMATION TO ALL USERS The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Dissertation Rubbishing UMI EP49812 Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author. Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC. All rights reserved. This work is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346 £ at < o O @ 9 ( P v ' o y This project report, written under the direction of the candidate’s adviser and approved by him, has been presented to and accepted by the faculty of the School of Education in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Education. Date... Q y ± m e _ / f . ^ ................................... Adviser Dean TABLE OF CONTENTS Chapter Page I . INTRODUCTION .................................................................... 1 The Problem D e f i n i t i o n o f Terms Used O r g a n iz a tio n o f t h e Study I I . REVIEW OF L IT E R A T U R E ............................................... 7 I n tr o d u c tio n M is c o n c e p tio n s among E le m e n tary School C h ild r e n B e l i e f s o f J u n i o r High S chool S tu d e n ts B e l i e f s o f High School S tu d e n ts B e l i e f s o f C o lle g e S tu d e n ts Summary I I I . REASONS FOR BELIEF IN SUPERSTITIONS . . . 38 In tr o d u c tio n Fear Poor L ogic T r a d itio n Lack o f In fo rm a tio n IV. ORIGINS OF SUPERSTITIONS AND MISCONCEPTIONS ......................................................... 47 V. THE PROCEDURE ............................................................... 58 G e n e ra l I n fo r m a tio n S u p e r s t i t i o n and M isc o n c e p tio n Q u e s t i o n n a i r e S u p e r s t i t i o n and M isc o n c e p tio n T e s t • • • 111 Chapter Page VI. F I N D I N G S ............................................................................. 62 S u p e r s t i t i o n and M isc o n c e p tio n Q u e s t i o n n a i r e S u p e r s t i t i o n and M isc o n c e p tio n T e s t V II. SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS......................................................... 79 Summary C o n c lu s io n s Recommendations BIBLIOGRAPHY........................................................................................ 86 A P P E N D IX .................................................................................................. 92 LIST OF TABLES Table Page 1. The Number o f Unfounded B e l i e f s W r itte n by Each P u p il .................................... 63 2. Unfounded B e l i e f s W r itte n F iv e Times o r M o r e .............................................................. 65 3. L i s t o f th e Unfounded B e l i e f s and T h e ir T o ta l Number o f T rue and P a r t i a l l y True R e s p o n s e s ......................................................... 69 4. L i s t o f Unfounded B e l i e f s and T h e ir T o ta l Number o f True R esponses . . . . 72 5. L i s t o f 39 Boys and Number o f Unfounded B e l i e f s M issed by Each . . . 74 6. L i s t o f 47 G i r l s and Number o f Unfounded B e l i e f s M issed by Each . . . 75 7. The Number o f Boys M issin g Each Unfounded B e l i e f .................................................... 76 8. The Number o f G i r l s M issin g Each Unfounded B e l i e f .......................... 78 i CHAPTER I INTRODUCTION i : S u p e r s t i t i o n s and o t h e r f a l s e b e l i e f s a r e a i h i n d r a n c e t o b o th s c i e n t i f i c and s o c i a l p r o g r e s s . T here a p p e a rs t o be a p e r p e t u a l problem in v o lv e d in t h e a n n i h i l a t i o n o f t h e s e b e l i e f s . When t h e need a r i s e s , i t i s v e ry e a sy f o r f a l s e b e l i e f s t o be a c c e p te d by many i n d i v i d u a l s who have n o t been t r a i n e d t o employ some ty p e o f s c i e n t i f i c ; m ethod. T his u s e o f s c i e n t i f i c t h i n k i n g w i l l h e l p them e v a l u a t e t h e ab u n d an t d i s c o u r s e b e in g a i r e d by f r i e n d s , j r a d i o , and t e l e v i s i o n . The im p o rta n c e o f t h e e d u c a t i o n a l f a c i l i t i e s a l s o c a n n o t be q u e s t io n e d in r e g a r d t o t h i s p ro blem . In f a r to o many homes t h e a b i l i t y o f t h e p a r e n t s j t o t e a c h t h e c h i l d c r i t i c a l e v a l u a t i o n i s s e r i o u s l y q u e s - i t i o n e d . The s c h o o ls m u st, t h e r e f o r e , engage in t h i s im por- I t a n t and d i f f i c u l t t a s k . I t s d i f f i c u l t y i s se e n when i t i ! i s r e a l i z e d how many o t h e r f o r c e s a r e a t p la y t h a t have an e f f e c t upon th e c h i l d : t h e home, p e e r g ro u p s , and |c o m m e rc ia l e n t e r p r i s e s , t o name a few . The q u e s t i o n th e n ( a r i s e s , ,T When sh o u ld t h e s c i e n t i f i c method be em ployed?" : 2 The o b v io u s answ er i s , "As soon a s t h e c h i l d e n t e r s s c h o o l . " The s c i e n t i f i c m ethod, i t sh o u ld be em p h a size d , m ust n o t be t r e a t e d a s a s p e c i a l c o u r s e o r u n i t on how t o ; t h i n k c l e a r l y and e f f e c t i v e l y ; i t sh o u ld be a p a r t o f t h e l e a r n i n g s i t u a t i o n , a means o f im p a r tin g know ledge and e s t a b l i s h i n g c o n c e p ts w hich o p e r a t e in h i s e n v iro n m e n t. The Problem S ta te m e n t o f t h e p r o b le m . - - I t was t h e p u rp o se o f t h i s s tu d y (1) t o c o m p ile a l i s t o f u n fo und ed b e l i e f s t h a t w ere h e a r d o f o r b e l i e v e d in by a g ro u p o f e i g h t h g r a d e i l i f e s c i e n c e j u n i o r h ig h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s , and (2) t o d e te r m in e t h e p r e v a l e n c e o f t h e s e b e l i e f s among t h e s t u d e n t s in a s p e c i f i c j u n i o r h ig h s c h o o l. Im p o rta n ce o f t h e p r o b le m . - - S in c e many young p e o p le have n o t been p r o p e r l y t a u g h t how t o c r i t i c a l l y a n a l y s e s t a t e m e n t s w hich th e y h e a r , many u nfo u n d ed b e l i e f s a r e a c c e p t e d . I t s h o u ld be p a r t o f t h e s c h o o l ’ s f u n c t i o n t o d i s p e l l t h e s e b e l i e f s b e f o r e th e y l e a v e s c h o o l. D i f f e r e n t g e o g r a p h i c a l a r e a s have d i f f e r e n t k in d s o f e rr o n e o u s b e l i e f s . I t i s n e c e s s a r y f o r e ac h s c h o o l t o make a su rv e y o f t h e p r e v a l e n t s u p e r s t i t i o n s and m is c o n - j c e p t i o n s o f i t s s t u d e n t body. The j u n i o r h i g h s c h o o l i l e v e l i s t h e m ost a d v a n ta g e o u s p l a c e t o a t t a c k t h e s e b e l i e f s w hich have a l r e a d y g a in e d a f o o t h o l d in t h e m inds o f t h e p u p i l s . I f an e n d ea v o r o f t h i s ty p e i s a tte m p te d a t a h i g h e r g ra d e l e v e l , many o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l s so p o s s e s s e d w i t h t h e s e m is c o n c e p tio n s w i l l n o t be s u b j e c t to t h i s ty p e o f p u r s u i t b e c a u s e th e y w i l l have a l r e a d y l e f t | | s c h o o l b e f o r e g r a d u a t i o n . The p o s s i b i l i t y o f t h e s e stu d e n ts ' g o in g th r o u g h l i f e w it h o u t e v e r l o s i n g t h e s e e rro n e o u s b e l i e f s i s g r e a t . I t i s t h e s c h o o l s ’ jo b t o a tt e m p t t o b r e a k t h e c y c l e o f ig n o r a n c e and s u p e r s t i t i o n . L i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e s t u d y . - - T h i s s tu d y was c a r r i e d ! o u t in o n ly one j u n i o r h ig h s c h o o l. No a tt e m p t was made i t o c o r r e l a t e t h e p u p i l s ’ s u p e r s t i t i o n s and m is c o n c e p tio n s |w i t h o t h e r f a c t o r s su ch a s a g e , s e x , e m o tio n a l s t a b i l i t y , i | o r so c io ec o n o m ic s t a t u s . The s tu d y was c o n d u c te d in r [ s c i e n c e c l a s s e s a s any f u t u r e u n i t r e l a t i n g t o t h i s study !would f a l l more n a t u r a l l y i n t o t h i s a r e a . No a tt e m p t was made t o d i s c u s s how t h i s i n f o r m a tio n o b t a i n e d sh o u ld be u se d in e s t a b l i s h i n g f u r t h e r s t u d i e s o r in p r e p a r i n g a i i u n i t c o n n e c te d w i t h t h i s s tu d y . J D e f i n i t i o n o f Terms Used S u p e r s t i t i o n . - - T h i s te rm i s d e f i n e d a s a b e l i e f , u s u a l l y o f an e m o tio n a l n a t u r e , in some m y s te r io u s f o r c e w hich h a s t h e power t o o p e r a t e c o n t r a r y t o known laws o f n a t u r e , s p e c i f i c a l l y t h a t law w hich a s c r i b e s t o c a u s a l I i ' r e l a t i o n s h i p s and whose f a l s i t y h a s been s c i e n t i f i c a l l y i p ro v e d . \ M is c o n c e p tio n . - - T h is te rm i s d e f i n e d a s an e r r o n e ous b e l i e f w hich does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y a s c r i b e t o any s u p e r n a t u r a l c a u s e and u s u a l l y shows some r e l a t i o n s h i p w ith l a c k o f k n ow ledge, e s p e c i a l l y in r e l a t i o n t o s c i e n t i f i c | phenomena. i i i i i M a g ic . - - T h i s te rm i s d e f i n e d a s an a tte m p t t o i e f f e c t i v e l y f u l f i l l any d e s i r e by t h e u s e o f m a t e r i a l s , i r i t e s , charm s and s p e l l s . i i i | A nim ism . - - T h i s te rm i s d e f i n e d a s a t t r i b u t i n g t h e ! e x i s t e n c e o f l i f e and c o n s c io u s n e s s t o n o n - l i v i n g o b j e c t s . : Unfounded b e l i e f . - - T h i s i s a g e n e r a l te rm w hich j i n c l u d e s w ords su c h a s s u p e r s t i t i o n , m is c o n c e p tio n , j f a l a c i e s , and anim ism , a l l o f w hich a r e r e l a t e d in t h a t ! th e y a s c r i b e t o e rr o n e o u s b e l i e f s . j S c i e n t i f i c m e th o d . - -A r e g u l a r , o r d e r l y , l o g i c a l p ro c e d u r e f o r s o l v i n g a p ro blem by means o f : a c o r r e c t s t a te m e n t o f t h e p ro b lem , c o l l e c t i n g a l l p e r t i n e n t in f o r m a t i o n , t e s t i n g a l l p o s s i b l e s o l u t i o n s f o r v a l i d i t y , and ; th e n a t t e m p t i n g t o f i n d a b e t t e r s o l u t i o n t o t h e p ro b lem . ! j O r g a n iz a tio n o f t h e Study T h is c h a p t e r e x p l a i n s t h e p u rp o se o f t h e p ro b lem , 1 t h e im p o rta n c e o f t h e p ro b lem , l i m i t a t i o n s o f t h e p ro b lem , and t h e d e f i n i t i o n s o f term s u s e d . C h a p te r I I i s a re v ie w o f l i t e r a t u r e p e r t a i n i n g t o t h e s t u d i e s and e x p e rim e n ts r e l a t e d t o t h i s p a r t i c u l a r j s t u d y . i ! In C h a p te r I I I some o f t h e r e a s o n s f o r b e l i e v i n g i in s u p e r s t i t i o n s and m is c o n c e p tio n s a r e d i s c u s s e d . | I In C h a p te r IV t h e o r i g i n o f some o f t h e f a l s e i I ! b e l i e f s found in t h i s s tu d y a r e g i v e n . ; C h a p te r V r e l a t e s t h e p r o c e d u r e employed in perform - j in g t h e s tu d y . | In C h a p te r VI t h e f i n d i n g s o f t h e s tu d y a r e p r e - ! I : s e n t e d . i I | In C h a p te r V II an a tte m p t i s made t o sum m arize |a n d draw c o n c l u s i o n s from t h e f i n d i n g s o f t h i s s t u d y . A j b i b l i o g r a p h y fo llo w s t h e f i n a l c h a p t e r . 1 CHAPTER I I REVIEW OF LITERATURE I n t r o d u c t i o n T here has been c o n s i d e r a b l e r e s e a r c h a t t e m p t i n g t o a s c e r t a i n t h e re a s o n f o r t h e p r e v a l e n c e and c o n t i n u a t i o n o f unfou nded b e l i e f s . Such f a c t o r s as socio eco n o m ic c o n d i t i o n s , u rb a n and r u r a l e n v iro n m e n t, a g e , i n t e l l i g e n c e , s c h o l a s t i c a b i l i t y , p a r e n t a l i n f l u e n c e , d e lin q u e n c y , emo t i o n a l m a t u r i t y , s e x , and r a c e have been u n d e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n . T e s ts in t h e s e a r e a s hav e been c o n d u c te d and c e r t a i n I j c o n c lu s io n s have been drawn. T h is c h a p te r i s co n cern ed * w i t h p r e s e n t i n g th e in f o r m a tio n o b t a i n e d from t h e s e s t u d i e s . t * i i M isc o n c e p tio n s among E le m e n ta ry | S chool C h ild r e n i | T here was o n ly one s tu d y a v a i l a b l e c o n c e r n in g m is c o n c e p tio n s o f e le m e n ta ry s c h o o l c h i l d r e n . Dzenowagis I (1 8 :1 5 0 ) co m p iled a l i s t o f 216 h e a l t h and s a f e t y m is c o n c e p t i o n s w hich m ig h t be c o n s i d e r e d h a rm fu l t o an i n d i v i d u a l j io r a g ro u p o f i n d i v i d u a l s i f t h e s e m is c o n c e p tio n s w ere employed in d a i l y l i v i n g . These m is c o n c e p tio n s w ere g iv e n t o f i f t h and s i x t h g ra d e c h i l d r e n . He foun d t h a t 50 p e r c e n t o r more o f t h e f i f t h g r a d e r s b e l i e v e d in o r p r a c t i c e d 72 o f t h e 216 m is c o n c e p tio n s ; 50 p e r c e n t o r more o f th e \ s i x t h g r a d e r s s u b s c r i b e d t o 69 o f t h e 216. T h is p e rc e n ta g e ! 'i s g r e a t enough t o c o n c lu d e t h a t many h a rm fu l h e a l t h and i s a f e t y m is c o n c e p tio n s w ere p r e v a l e n t among f i f t h and s i x t h I g ra d e p u p i l s . B e l i e f s o f J u n io r H ig h S chool S tu d e n ts Sm ith ( 3 8 :6 6 - 6 8 ) , in 1930, c o n s t r u c t e d a 3 2 -ite m s u p e r s t i t i o n t e s t w hich he gave t o n i n t h g r a d e s t u d e n t s a t |t h e b e g in n in g o f t h e y e a r . A n o th e r t e s t was g iv e n a t t h e j |c l o s e o f t h e y e a r . The p u rp o se o f t h e s e t e s t s was t o s e c u r e e v id e n c e c o n c e rn in g t h e e f f e c t o f s p e c i f i c s c i e n c e i I i n s t r u c t i o n on s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e l i e f s . The r e s u l t s showed Ja mean g a in o f 2 .4 2 p o i n t s . A n o th e r g ro u p o f p u p i l s com- iposed o f s e v e n th and e i g h t h g r a d e r s u se d a s t h e c o n t r o l s gro u p made a mean l o s s o f 1.1 6 p o i n t s on t h e two t e s t s . The c o n c l u s i o n s d e r iv e d from t h i s e x p e rim e n t show t h a t s c i e n c e i n s t r u c t i o n d e c r e a s e s s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e l i e f . In 1933, M a ile r and Lundeen (3 0 :3 2 1 -3 4 3 ) gave t o I ( ! l 7 0 _ p u p i l s , r a n g in g in age from 13 t o 16, a 5 0 - ite m t e s t ■ d e a l i n g w ith u n foun ded b e l i e f s . The r e s u l t s showed t h a t t h e a v e r a g e p u p i l b e l i e v e d in 30 p e r c e n t o f t h e ite m s , w h ile e x p r e s s in g a d i s b e l i e f in 55 p e r c e n t . On 15 p e r c e n t o f t h e ite m s th e p u p i l s w ere u n c e r t a i n . O th er r e s u l t s ; showed t h a t t h e y o u n g e r i n d i v i d u a l s b e l i e v e d in a g r e a t e r 1 number o f ite m s th a n t h e i r o l d e r c l a s s m a t e s , t h a t boys ; e x p r e s s e d a l e s s e r number o f s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e l i e f s th a n g i r l s , and t h a t t h e r e i s a r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een t h e number j ! o f s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e l i e f s and t h e ty p e o f l i t e r a t u r e p r e f e r r e d . Those who i n d i c a t e d a p r e f e r e n c e f o r books on s c i e n c e and i n v e n t i o n showed l e s s s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e l i e f s on t h e t e s t th a n th o s e who p r e f e r r e d books o f f i c t i o n , a d v e n t u r e , and m y s te r y . * The f o llo w in g y e a r , M a ile r and Lundeen (3 1 :5 9 2 - 617) s t u d i e d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p s betw een s u p e r s t i t i o n and i ie m o tio n a l m a la d ju s tm e n t. The C a ld w e ll and Lundeen t e s t | ‘was r e v i s e d f o r t h i s s t u d y . The r e v i s i o n c o n s i s t e d o f i ! 50 p r e v a l e n t s u p e r s t i t i o n s . The t e s t i n g d e v ic e s w ere i composed o f a b a t t e r y o f t e s t s w hich m easured t h e e m o tio n a l i a d ju s tm e n t and a t e s t o f i r r a t i o n a l a s s o c i a t i o n s . These , t e s t s w ere g iv e n t o 366 s e v e n th g ra d e s t u d e n t s . I t was i (found t h a t t h e s c o r e on t h e s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e l i e f s c o r r e l a t e d w i t h t h e s c o r e s o f t h e e m o tio n a l m a la d ju s tm e n t j t e s t s and w i t h t h e s c o r e s o f t h e i r r a t i o n a l w ord- I a s s o c i a t i o n t e s t . A ls o , t h e number o f f e a r s and w o r r i e s i j i n d i c a t e d by t h e s t u d e n t s shows a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p I ‘t o b o th e m o tio n a l m a la d ju s tm e n t and s u p e r s t i t i o n . In 1935, J a g g e r s (5 1 :1 -8 9 ) a tte m p te d t o d e te rm in e t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e l i e f s o f j u n i o r h ig h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s and (1) t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e o f t h e p u p i l s , (2) t h e s u p e r s t i t i o n s o f t h e i r p a r e n t s , (3) t h e p u p ils * e m o tio n a l s t a b i l i t y , and (4) t h e so c io ec o n o m ic s t a b i l i t y o f t h e s t u d e n t s . The r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e m ost i n t e l l i g e n t g ro u p s had few er s u p e r s t i t i o u s i b e l i e f s th a n t h e l e a s t i n t e l l i g e n t . They w ere a l s o shown t o be b e t t e r a d j u s t e d e m o t i o n a l ly and came from b e t t e r so c io ec o n o m ic b a c k g ro u n d s. T h e ir p a r e n t s a l s o b e l i e v e d in few er s u p e r s t i t i o n s th a n d id t h e p a r e n t s o f t h e l e a s t i n t e l l i g e n t . Some o f J a g g e rs * recom m endations r e s u l t i n g from d e r i v e d s t a t i s t i c a l r e s u l t s w ere: (1) a d e q u a te a d u l t e d u c a t i o n a l program so t h a t t h e p a r e n t s can have t h e o p p o r t u n i t y t o l e a r n a b o u t c o r r e c t c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , (2) p r o p e r i n s t r u c t i o n f o r t h e p u p i l s w hich w i l l e n a b le them t o e v a l u a t e c o r r e c t l y t h e p o p u la r m is c o n c e p t i o n s o f t h e i r com m unity, (3) t o e d u c a te t h e t e a c h e r s so t h a t th e y may become b e t t e r in fo rm e d a b o u t c a u s a l r e l a t i o n s h i p s , and (4) f u r t h e r s t u d i e s t o expand th e a l r e a d y e x i s t i n g know ledge in t h e a r e a o f s u p e r s t i t i o n and e d u c a ti o n . In 1937, B lacko w ski (1 3 :3 4 7 -3 6 1 ) gave a q u e s t i o n n a i r e t o 39 g i r l s , betw een t h e a g e s o f 13 and 14, w hich I was t o t e s t t h e i r b e l i e f in m ag ic. The s u b j e c t s w ere : from a g i r l s gymnasium in Lodz, Germany. The f o llo w in g | i s an exam ple o f m a g ic a l b e h a v io r e x p r e s s e d by one g i r l : ! n I alw ays w alk on t h e s i d e o f t h e s t r e e t on w hich t h e s c h o o l i s s i t u a t e d s i n c e I b e l i e v e t h a t i f I w alk on t h e i o p p o s i t e s i d e I w i l l g e t a f2 ' ( i n s u f f i c i e n t ) " (1 3 :3 4 9 ) . The a u th o r f e e l s t h a t m a g ic a l t h i n k i n g on t h e j p a r t o f t h e g i r l s in t h i s c l a s s o c c u r s m ost o f t e n on t h e ! s t r e e t s when th e y a r e on t h e i r way t o s c h o o l. The re a s o n ! e x p r e s s e d i s t h a t a t su ch tim e s t h e s t u d e n t i s f e a r f u l i o f w hat w i l l happen in s c h o o l. T h is f e a r th e n d i c t a t e s ! a d e s i r e t o f o r e t e l l t h e f u t u r e o r t o d i r e c t f a t e , hen ce I ! m a g ic a l th o u g h ts a r e p e rfo rm e d on t h e s t r e e t s . The r e s u l t s ! | showed t h a t 72 p e r c e n t o f t h e g i r l s b e l i e v e d in magic a t some tim e in l i f e , and 40 p e r c e n t b e l i e v e d in m agic j a t s c h o o l . : T er K e u rst (3 9 :2 2 6 -2 4 0 ) c o n d u c te d a s tu d y in 1938 jw h ic h showed t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b etw een d e l i n q u e n t and i ; ~ ' 12 1 I » ’ n o n - d e l i n q u e n t b o y s. A l i s t o f 92 ite m s was g iv e n t o 95 I 1 d e l i n q u e n t boys and t o 78 n o n - d e l i n q u e n t boys in t h e n i n t h g r a d e . The d e l i n q u e n t boys w ere on t h e a v e ra g e one and h a l f y e a r s o l d e r . They w ere f o r t h e m ost p a r t a l l w o rk in g , below t h e n i n t h g ra d e l e v e l . The r e s u l t s showed t h a t tw ic e i i a s many s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e l i e f s w ere b e l i e v e d in by t h e d e l i n q u e n t boys a s w ere by t h e n o n - d e l i n q u e n t b o y s. The imean p e r c e n t o f a c c e p ta n c e was 3 9 .4 0 p e r c e n t f o r t h e 1 d e l i n q u e n t boys and 17.75 p e r c e n t f o r t h e n o n - d e l i n q u e n t b o y s. The d e l i n q u e n t s b e l i e v e d in e v i l s p i r i t s and s u p e r s t i t i o n s i n v o lv i n g o b e d ie n c e t o law . The s tu d y a l s o i n d i c a t e d t h a t w h ile a w ide d i f f e r e n c e e x i s t e d in t h e number o f | s u p e r s t i t i o n s b e l i e v e d ( q u a n t i t a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e ) by t h e two | g r o u p s , t h e r e was no s i g n i f i c a n t d i f f e r e n c e betw een t h e ; k in d s o f s u p e r s t i t i o n s ( q u a l i t a t i v e d i f f e r e n c e s ) . Z apf ( 4 7 : 5 4 - 6 2 ) , in 1938, w anted t o p ro v e t h a t i 1 s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e l i e f s w ere t h e r e s u l t o f u n s c i e n t i f i c i t h i n k i n g , p a r t i c u l a r l y in r e l a t i o n t o t h e c a u s e - a n d - e f f e c t i p r i n c i p l e . She a l s o w anted t o d e te rm in e w h e th e r th e i i | i n f l u e n c e o f s p e c i f i c i n s t r u c t i o n would re d u c e s u p e r s t i t i o u s ■ b e l i e f s . Two h u n d red and e i g h t y - f i v e n i n t h g r a d e s t u d e n t s i iw ere g iv e n c h e c k - l i s t s t o d e te r m in e t h e i r s u p e r s t i t i o u s I b e l i e f s a f t e r a r e g u l a r c o u r s e in s c i e n c e . The p u p i l s I w ere l a t e r e n r o l l e d in a c l a s s w hich had a s p e c i a l c o u r s e 1 o f s tu d y d e v is e d w hich a tte m p te d t o re d u c e t h e i r s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e l i e f s . The i n s t r u c t i o n c o n s i s t e d o f (a) e x p e r i - j m e n tin g w i t h u n fo u n d ed b e l i e f s in th e c la s s r o o m , (b) s t u - i d e n ts making r e p o r t s c o n c e rn in g t h i n g s t h a t happen t o them 1 w hich m ight be c o n s i d e r e d good o r bad lu c k , and (c) c o n c l u s i o n s w ere drawn c o n c e rn in g t h e v a l i d i t y o f a g iv e n : s u p e r s t i t i o n . A seco nd s e r i e s o f s u p e r s t i t i o n s w ere g iv e n on a l t e r n a t e weeks w hereby d i s c u s s i o n , t h e u s e o f s c i e n t i f i c m eth o d s, and th e e s t a b l is h m e n t o f s c i e n t i f i c a t t i - ; tu d e s w ere form ed. The r e s u l t s showed t h a t g e n e r a l s c i e n c e i n s t r u c t i o n had no e f f e c t in d i m in is h in g s u p e r s t i t i o u s j b e l i e f s . F o llo w in g t h e s p e c i a l c o u r s e o f s tu d y t h e mean i I number o f s u p e r s t i t i o n s b e l i e v e d by t h e p u p i l s was re d u c e d I from 9 .2 t o 4 . 1 . The o t h e r c h e c k - l i s t showed a r e d u c t i o n {from 17 .0 t o 6 .6 0 . A low p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n a l s o e x i s t e d t ibetw een s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e l i e f s and e m o tio n a l a d ju s tm e n t as I m easured by t h e Woodword Mathews P e r s o n a l D ata S h e e t . The I ! ■ i c o n c l u s i o n s r e a c h e d w ere t h a t : (1) r e g u l a r g e n e r a l s c ie n c e ' work a p p e a rs n o t t o have any e f f e c t on t h e r e d u c t i o n o f J s u p e r s t i t i o n s ; (2) a d i r e c t a t t a c k on s u p e r s t i t i o n s w i l l i r e s u l t in t h e r e d u c t i o n o f t h e i r num ber. The recommendation r ■ ' 14 I i j s t a t e d t h a t a p a r t o f e v e ry g e n e r a l s c i e n c e c o u r s e sh o u ld 1 s t r e s s t h e d ev elopm ent o f s c i e n t i f i c a t t i t u d e s , m ethods i o f p r o c e d u r e , and s p e c i f i c i n s t r u c t i o n f o r t h e e l i m i n a t i o n o f s u p e r s t i t i o n s . Z apf ( 4 3 :1 3 - 2 4 ) , t h e same y e a r , compared a p a p e r - i , a n d - p e n c i l t e s t w i t h tw e lv e common s u p e r s t i t i o n s w hich c o u ld be d i r e c t l y e x p e r ie n c e d by h e r s t u d e n t s . T here w ere 1 I two g ro u p s o f n i n t h g ra d e p u p i l s who to o k t h e t e s t s . Group I : I c o n s i s t e d o f 32 p u p i l s who on t h e w r i t t e n t e s t i n d i c a t e d j no s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e l i e f s . The 19 s t u d e n t s in Group I I had c la im e d b e l i e f in seven o r more o f t h e s u p e r s t i t i o n s . The e x p e rim e n t was c o n d u c te d in a s m a ll work room. The p e rs o n S p e rfo rm in g t h e e x p e rim e n t c o u ld o b s e rv e t h e a c t i o n s o f t h e i p u p i l s in th e room w i th o u t b e in g o b se rv e d h e r s e l f . T his |w as a c c o m p lish e d by lo o k in g th r o u g h a window on th e d oor i i o f t h e room w hich e n a b le d th e v ie w e r o u t s i d e o f th e room i ! t o lo o k i n , w ith o u t th e p u p i l s b e in g aw are t h a t th e y w ere ! ib e in g o b s e rv e d . One p u p i l a t a tim e was s e n t i n t o th e ! room. I n s i d e t h e room tw e lv e s u p e r s t i t i o u s s i t u a t i o n s J s jw ere made a v a i l a b l e a lo n g w i t h t h e means w hereby t h e s t u - i i 'd e n t c o u ld b r e a k t h e s u p e r s t i t i o n . Item s su ch a s a m i r r o r and hammer, a p in l y i n g on t h e f l o o r and a l a d d e r propped |a g a i n s t t h e w a l l w ere a t t h e d i s p o s a l o f t h e s t u d e n t a t 15 eac h o f t h e tw e lv e s i t u a t i o n s . W r i t te n i n s t r u c t i o n s w ere l e f t a t each s t a t i o n a s k in g t h e p u p i l t o v o l u n t a r i l y b r e a k th e s u p e r s t i t i o n . A s e p a r a t e r e c o r d was k e p t f o r each i n d i v i d u a l . The r e s u l t s showed a c o r r e l a t i o n c o e f f i c i e n t o f .79 betw een t h e p a p e r - a n d - p e n c i l t e s t and t h e a c t u a l b e h a v i o r . T his seems t o i n d i c a t e t h a t t h e p e n c i l - a n d - p a p e r t e s t was a v a l i d means o f t e s t i n g s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e l i e f s . The f o llo w in g y e a r , Z apf (4 6 :4 8 1 -4 9 6 ) gave 1,143 n i n t h g ra d e p u p i l s 100 s u p e r s t i t i o n ite m s . T here w ere o n ly 53 i n d i v i d u a l s who c la im e d n o t t o b e l i e v e in any o f t h e 100 s u p e r s t i t i o n s ; th e o t h e r 1,0 9 0 s c o r e s ra n g e d from 1 t o 91. The g ro u p mean was 2 0 .6 . A lth o u g h t h e a u th o r had n o t e s t a b l i s h e d t h e c o e f f i c i e n t o f c o r r e l a t i o n betw een i n t e l l i g e n c e and s u p e r s t i t i o n , t h e mean s c o r e f o r each g ro u p in i n t e l l i g e n c e showed a d e f i n i t e i n c r e a s e o f s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e l i e f s w i t h low er m e n t a l i t i e s . Every l e v e l o f i n t e l l i g e n c e , how ever, was w e l l s u p p l i e d w i t h s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e l i e f s . In 1940, V ic k lu n d (4 1 :9 3 -9 9 ) gave 70 boys and 58 g i r l s a p r e t e s t composed o f 198 s u p e r s t i t i o n s co m p iled by C a ld w e ll and Lundeen. A t e a c h i n g u n i t was th e n e s t a b l i s h e d . T h is u n i t em ph asized g ro u p a c t i v i t i e s whereby 16 1 t h e p u p i l s p e rfo rm ed e x p e r im e n ts w i t h v a r i o u s s u p e r s t i t i o n s ^ and m is c o n c e p tio n s . Upon c o m p le tio n o f t h e u n i t , th e 1 p u p i l s w ere r e t e s t e d , th e r e s u l t s o f w hich showed a r e d u c t i o n in t h e mean p e r c e n t o f 2 1 .4 o f s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e l i e f s . The s i g n i f i c a n t c o n c l u s i o n s form ed a r e a s f o l lo w s : (1) g i r l s in j u n i o r h ig h s c h o o l c l a s s e s i n d i c a t e a s l i g h t l y h i g h e r d e g re e o f s u p e r s t i t i o n th a n b o y s, (2) t h e home i s j one o f t h e g r e a t e s t s o u r c e s f o r t h e p r o p a g a tio n o f s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e l i e f s , (3) g i r l s l o s e a few more s u p e r s t i t i o n s th a n boys a f t e r d i r e c t t e a c h i n g i s g iv e n , (4) t h e most d i f f i c u l t f a l s e b e l i e f s t o e l i m i n a t e a r e t h o s e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h h e a l t h , and (5) t e a c h i n g u n i t s d e a l i n g w i t h s u p e r s t i t i o n s h e l p t h e s t u d e n t s t o d i s c r i m i n a t e betw een f a c t u a l in f o r m a tio n and e rr o n e o u s b e l i e f s . Z apf ( 4 5 :5 6 1 - 5 7 9 ), in 1945, i n v e s t i g a t e d th e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e l i e f s and (1) i n t e l l i g e n c e , (2) a g e , (3) e m o tio n a l and s o c i a l a d ju s tm e n t , (4) amount o f g e n e r a l s c i e n c e work a tt e m p t e d , (5) so c io ec o n o m ic s t a t u s o f th e f a m i ly , and (6) n a t i o n a l i t y . T h ere w ere 1 ,1 25 n i n t h g ra d e s t u d e n t s in v o lv e d . T h e ir a g es ra n g e d from 13 t o 19 y e a r s . T here w ere 538 boys and 597 g i r l s . T here w ere 1 ,052 w h ite s and 83 N e g ro es. The n i n e s c h o o ls s e l e c t e d w ere from w id e ly s e p a r a t e d p a r t s o f th e c i t y o f j D e t r o i t so t h a t t h e r e was a f a i r sa m p lin g o f p u p i l s w i t h I ( r e s p e c t t o t h e so cio eco n o m ic c o n d t i o n s , home e n v iro n m e n t, ' land n a t i o n a l i t y . The r e s u l t s showed t h a t : (1) g i r l s w ere ! ! :more s u p e r s t i t i o u s th a n b o y s, (2) as t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e l e v e l i d e c r e a s e d , t h e mean s u p e r s t i t i o n s c o r e s i n c r e a s e d , (3) a i , low n e g a t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n e x i s t e d betw een e m o tio n a l and ; s o c i a l a d ju s tm e n t and b e l i e f in s u p e r s t i t i o n s , (4) t h e r e , i s a s l i g h t te n d e n c y f o r s u p e r s t i t i o u s n e s s t o d e c r e a s e i ! w i t h t h e i n c r e a s e o f g e n e r a l s c i e n c e i n s t r u c t i o n consumed by t h e i n d i v i d u a l (th e d e c r e a s e , how ever, was n o t in d i r e c t p r o p o r t i o n t o t h e amount o f s c i e n c e ) , (5) t h e mean s u p e r s t i t i o n s c o r e s d e c r e a s e d a s t h e o c c u p a t i o n a l l e v e l o f t h e p u p i l s 1 f a t h e r s i n c r e a s e d , (6) p u p i l s whose f a t h e r s ! had a t t e n d e d c o l l e g e w ere l e s s s u p e r s t i t i o u s , and (7) * U n ite d S t a t e s N egroes and t h e Romance g ro u p s w ere more ! s u p e r s t i t i o u s th a n t h e o t h e r n a t i o n a l i t i e s . ! In 1946, E b e rt (5 0 :1 -4 3 ) a tte m p te d t o d e te rm in e i ! t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een s u p e r s t i t i o n s and e m o tio n a l i m a la d ju s tm e n t by t e s t i n g s e v e n th g ra d e p u p i l s . T here w ere i i ! 26 g i r l s and 24 b o y s. The s u p e r s t i t i o n t e s t c o n s i s t e d I o f 55 s t a t e m e n t s t o be answ ered Yes o r No o r w i t h a i I ! q u e s t i o n m a rk . The l a t t e r was t o be u se d by t h e p u p i l t o i n d i c a t e t h a t he was u n c e r t a i n o f t h e a n sw e r. T his j t e s t was made from a l i s t o f e rr o n e o u s b e l i e f s g a th e r e d I from t e a c h e r s in a l o c a l s c h o o l d i s t r i c t . The C a l i f o r n i a T e s t o f P e r s o n a l i t y was used t o d e te rm in e t h e p u p ils * e m o tio n a l s t a b i l i t y . The r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t g i r l s d id s l i g h t l y b e t t e r th a n boys on t h e s u p e r s t i t i o n t e s t , w ith a mean o f 13 .1 5 t o 13.25 f o r th e b o y s. The p e r s o n a l i t y a d ju s tm e n t t e s t gave t h e boys a s l i g h t a d v a n ta g e w ith t h e jmean o f 9 .1 5 t o 9 .1 3 . T h is r e s u l t showed t h a t t h e r e i s i l i t t l e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een s u p e r s t i t i o n and e m o tio n a l a d j u s t m e n t . B e l i e f s o f High S choo l S tu d e n ts G a r r e t and F i s h e r (2 2 :4 1 1 - 4 2 0 ), in 1926, to o k ;Nixon*s q u e s t i o n n a i r e and i n c r e a s e d t h e number o f ite m s I i fro m 30 t o 40. T his q u e s t i o n n a i r e was g iv e n t o 140 s e n i o r g i r l s and 115 s e n i o r boys in New York C i t y . The a v e r a g e i jage o f b o th boys and g i r l s was n e a r l y 17 y e a r s . The r e s u l t s showed t h e a v e ra g e number o f s t a te m e n t s m arked t r u e was 1 7 .6 f o r t h e boys and 1 9 .9 f o r t h e g i r l s , a d i f - jfe r e n c e o f 2 . 3 . G e n e ra l i n t e l l i g e n c e was found t o have i l l i t t l e i n f l u e n c e in d e te r m in in g t h e number o f b e l i e f s . i i The e x p e rim e n ts c o n c lu d e d t h a t l a c k o f in f o r m a tio n was Ipro bably t h e m a jo r f a c t o r w hich c o n d i t i o n s f a l s e b e l i e f s . I 1 9 In 1930, Lundeen and C a ld w e ll (2 9 :2 5 7 -2 7 3 ) i n v e s t i - I i g a te d t h e e x t e n t t o w hich h ig h s c h o o l s e n i o r s o f v a r io u s l o c a l i t i e s a r e a c q u a in t e d w i t h and i n f l u e n c e d by c e r t a i n e rro n e o u s b e l i e f s . The p ro c e d u r e c o n s i s t e d o f a q u e s t i o n n a i r e c o n t a i n i n g 200 s t a t e m e n t s . T his q u e s t i o n n a i r e was | s e n t t o t e n h ig h s c h o o l s . S ix o f t h e s c h o o ls w ere l o c a t e d ■ in r u r a l towns w h ile t h e o t h e r f o u r w ere in l a r g e c i t i e s . ! j A t o t a l o f 918 p u p i l s an sw ered t h e ite m s . Of t h i s t o t a l 526 w ere boys and 392 w ere g i r l s . I t was fo und t h a t th e p u p i l s w ere a c q u a in t e d w ith a p p r o x im a te ly 50 p e r c e n t o f t h e id e a s p r e s e n t e d . I t was f u r t h e r shown t h a t 10 p e r |c e n t o f t h e ite m s w ere b e l i e v e d by t h e a v e r a g e s t u d e n t . The i n v e s t i g a t i o n i n f e r r e d t h a t e d u c a tio n and e x p e r ie n c e te n d t o re d u c e t h e e rr o n e o u s b e l i e f s by t h e f a c t t h a t c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s show few er o f t h e s e b e l i e f s th a n do h ig h s c h o o l s e n i o r s . High s c h o o l s e n i o r g i r l s have h e a r d , b e l i e v e d i n , and a r e i n f l u e n c e d by a g r e a t e r number o f e rr o n e o u s b e l i e f s th a n a r e t h e s e n i o r b o y s . F i n a l l y , h ig h | . s c h o o l s e n i o r s o f s m a l l e r com m unities b e l i e v e in more s u p e r - I !s t i t i o n s th a n t h e h ig h s c h o o l s e n i o r s o f l a r g e r c i t i e s . 1 B lacko w sk i ( 1 3 :3 4 7 - 3 6 1 ), in 1937, i n v e s t i g a t e d t h e | m a g ic a l b e l i e f s o f g i r l s 17 and 18 y e a r s o f a g e a t t h e Lodz gymnasium. A l l o f t h e g i r l s w ere f a m i l i a r w ith I ; 2o” jm ag ical p o n d e ra n ce from t h e i r own e x p e r i e n c e . F o r ty - o n e p e r c e n t had c e a s e d t o u s e m a g ic a l p r a c t i c e s , w h i l e 53 p e r c e n t a f f i r m e d t h a t th e y r e s o r t e d t o them on im p o r ta n t o c c a s i o n s . T h i r t y - f i v e p e r c e n t o f t h e g roup r e s o r t e d t o ^magic in r e l a t i o n t o s c h o o l c o n d i t i o n s . T his g ro u p i I a s c r ib e d t h e i r m a g ic a l p r a c t i c e s t o a n x i e t y a b o u t im p o r ta n t !e v e n ts su ch as s c h o o l e x a m in a tio n s . I t was a l s o found t h a t 59 p e r c e n t b e l i e v e d in m agic a t some tim e in t h e i r i j l i f e . In 1955, M i l l e r (3 2 :1 2 3 -1 2 9 ) d e s ig n e d t h e F a l l a c y R e c o g n itio n T e s t . I t was c o n s t r u c t e d in an e f f o r t t o t e s t t h e a b i l i t y o f s t u d e n t s t o r e c o g n i z e p r i n t e d s t a t e - jments o f f a l l a c i e s in r e a s o n i n g . Two h u n d red s e v e n t y - n i n e jp u p ils in g r a d e s 10 th r o u g h 12 in an u rb an h ig h s c h o o l w ere t e s t e d . The F a l l a c y R e c o g n itio n T e s t c o n s i s t e d o f t jtwo form s o f 50 ite m s e a c h . Of t h e 50 ite m s , o n ly 29 t Iwere t o be s c o r e d ; t h e o t h e r s w ere d i s t r a c t o r i te m s . The r e s u l t s showed a r a n k o r d e r o f d i f f i c u l t y o f f a l l a c i e s in i jr e a s o n in g . T h is o r d e r i s n o t a f f e c t e d by f a c t o r s o f s c h o l a s t i c s t a n d i n g , m e n ta l a g e , s e x , o r g ra d e l e v e l . The a b i l i t y t o r e c o g n i z e t h e f a l l a c i e s a l s o i s n o t d e p en d e n t upon t h e above f a c t o r s . I t was c o n c lu d e d t h a t i n s t r u c - f I jtio n in h ig h s c h o o l c l a s s e s can im prove t h e a b i l i t y o f | 21 ! i t I I jth e s t u d e n t t o c o r r e c t f a l l a c i e s . B e l i e f s o f C o lle g e S tu d e n ts ; One o f t h e fo re m o s t works on s u p e r s t i t i o n d e a l i n g j iw ith c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s was made by D r e s s l a r (4 8 :1 -2 3 8 ) in 11907. The p u rp o se o f t h i s s tu d y was t o f i n d o u t what S u p e r s t i t i o n s w ere known and b e l i e v e d in by c o l l e g e s t u d e n ts a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a . E ig h t h u n d red and s e v e n t y - f i v e s t u d e n t s betw een t h e a g e s o f 16 and 28, w ith a mean age o f 19, w ere a sk e d t o w r i t e a l l t h e s u p e r s t i t i o n s th e y knew on b l a n k s l i p s o f p a p e r w hich w ere p a s s e d o u t t o them . The s t u d e n t s l i s t e d a t o t a l o f 7 ,1 7 6 s u p e r s t i t i o n s , o f w hich 4 4 .9 p e r c e n t w ere b e l i e v e d f u l l y o r I j p a r t i a l l y . The r e t u r n s showed t h a t men and women d i f f e r e d l i t t l e in t h e number o f s u p e r s t i t i o n s known and b e l i e v e d i n . D r e s s l a r sum m arized t h a t , (1) modern b e l i e f and ! j ja n c ie n t f a i t h a r e n o t f a r a p a r t , (2) s u p e r s t i t i o u s d re a d land e m o tio n a l p r e d i s p o s i t i o n a r e v e ry s t r o n g f a c t o r s in (d ete rm in in g m a t t e r s o f b e l i e f , and (3) i t i s h y g e n i c a l l y n e c e s s a r y f o r t h e human mind t o draw c o n c l u s i o n s . I t ( t h e mind) c a n n o t p r e s e r v e i t s own h e a l t h u n l e s s r e l i e v e d o f t h e f a t i g u i n g s t r a i n | o f i n d e c i s i o n , n o r can i t g u id e in t h e a f f a i r s ! o f a c t i v e l i f e w i t h o u t g e n e r a l i z i n g upon i t s 1 p r e s e n t a t i o n s . I t i s e a sy t o b e l i e v e when j f a i t h g i v e s us r e s t . (4 8 :1 5 3 ) | A n o th e r im p o r ta n t s tu d y was c o m p le te d by C o n k lin (1 5 :8 3 -1 0 2 ) in 1919. T h is s tu d y was b a se d upon r e t u r n s o f a q u e s t i o n n a i r e g iv e n t o s t u d e n t s in b e g in n in g p s y c h o l ogy a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f Oregon from t h e y e a r s 1913 t o 1919 [There w ere 557 s t u d e n t s whose a g es ra n g e d from 16 t o 25. i ! I T h ere w ere 267 m ales and 290 f e m a le s . The r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d showed t h a t 53 p e r c e n t o f t h e s t u d e n t s a d m itte d s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e l i e f s o r p r a c t i c e s , 40 p e r c e n t by t h e men and 60 p e r c e n t by t h e women. S i x t y - o n e p e r c e n t o f th o s e who d e n ie d h a v in g any s u p e r s t i t i o n s a t t h e tim e o f t h e w r i t i n g a d m itte d t o h a v in g f o r m e r ly b e l i e v e d o r p r a c t i c e d them . I t was c o n c lu d e d t h a t men outgrow s u p e r s t i t i o n s e a s i e r th a n women. ! In 1921, Gould (2 4 :2 0 3 -2 4 8 ) made a s tu d y o f t h e ! s u p e r s t i t i o n s o f S c o t t i s h c o l l e g e g i r l s . They w ere a sk e d t o w r i t e a s many s u p e r s t i t i o n s as th e y c o u ld remember and jto name t h o s e t h a t i n f l u e n c e d t h e i r c o n d u c t. An a v e r a g e o f 1 5 .4 s u p e r s t i t i o n s w ere w r i t t e n by eac h s t u d e n t in a !15-m inute p e r i o d o f t im e . He fou nd t h a t 94 p e r c e n t o f ja il t h e i n d i v i d u a l s w ere a f f e c t e d by t h e s e s u p e r s t i t i o n s , ! and t h o s e who w ere a f f e c t e d t h e m ost c o u ld r e c a l l t h e ! g r e a t e s t number o f s u p e r s t i t i o n s . ! Beckwith (12:1-15), two years later, made a study t I * o f s u p e r s t i t i o n s o f Am erican c o l l e g e g i r l s . A t o t a l o f 186 s u p e r s t i t i o n s w ere r e c a l l e d by 45 s t u d e n t s . E ig h ty o f t h e ite m s r e f e r r e d t o g o o d -lu c k o r b a d - l u c k s i g n s . The n e x t h i g h e s t number o f ite m s r e f e r r e d t o lo v e o f } m a r r i a g e . The m a j o r i t y o f g o o d -lu c k s i g n s a r e a s s i g n e d 1 s p e c i f i c a l l y t o o b j e c t s w hich r e l a t e t o t h e i n t e r e s t s o f t h e g ro u p . Nixon ( 3 3 :4 1 8 -4 2 3 ), in 1925, i n v e s t i g a t e d th e j unsound b e l i e f s o f 359 s t u d e n t s o f Colum bia and New York U n i v e r s i t i e s . The 140 women m arked 4 1 .1 p e r c e n t o f t h e s t a t e m e n t s t r u e a s a g a i n s t 3 5 .1 p e r c e n t by t h e men. He c o n c lu d e d t h a t t h e m is c o n c e p tio n s m ost w id e ly h e l d a r e i jdue t o i g n o r a n c e . Wagner ( 4 2 :2 6 - 3 6 ) , in 1928, r e v i s e d D r e s s l a r * s I jplan o f a p p ro a c h t o o b t a i n t h e s u p e r s t i t i o n s known and b e l i e v e d i n . She a l s o a tte m p te d t o d e te r m in e t h e r e l a - i t i o n s h i p betw een t h e s e s u p e r s t i t i o n s and o t h e r f a c t o r s i n c l u d i n g i n t e l l i g e n c e , s e x , and a g e . She found t h a t th e 186 fresh m en r e p o r t e d 1,4 23 e rr o n e o u s b e l i e f s , a l l o f w hich i n f l u e n c e d t h e i r b e h a v i o r . T h is number a v e ra g e d 7 .6 p e r |c e n t. A t o t a l o f 119 men r e p o r t e d 757 s u p e r s t i t i o n s o r |6.5 p e r man, w h i l e 67 women r e p o r t e d 666 o r 1 1 .6 p e r jwoman. A p o s i t i v e r a t i o o f .058 was found betw een i n t e l l i g e n c e and s u p e r s t i t i o n . Lundeen and C a ld w e ll ( 2 9 :2 5 7 - 2 7 3 ), in 1930, com p a r e d t h e r e s p o n s e s o f c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s w i t h t h o s e o f ihigh s c h o o l s e n i o r s . The 264 c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s u s e d in I i ! t h is e x p e rim e n t c o n s i s t e d o f 108 men and 156 women. These s t u d e n t s w ere m a tu re a d u l t s w i t h an a v e r a g e age o f 23 i y e a r s . The r e s u l t s showed t h a t c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s had i h e a r d o f a h i g h e r p e r c e n t a g e o f u n fo und ed b e l i e f s th a n h ig h s c h o o l s e n i o r s ; how ever, th e y b e l i e v e d c o n s i d e r a b l y l e s s , and t h e i r a c t i o n s w ere i n f l u e n c e d l e s s by them . He a l s o fou nd t h a t c o l l e g e men b e l i e v e d in few er u n fo u n d ed j b e l i e f s and a r e i n f l u e n c e d l e s s by their, th a n a r e c o l l e g e i women. | G i l l i l a n d ( 2 3 :4 7 2 -4 7 9 ), in t h e same y e a r , a l s o ,made a s tu d y o f s u p e r s t i t i o n s o f c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s . A | m o d if ie d form o f t h e Nixon t e s t was g iv e n t o two g ro u p s i ! o f s t u d e n t s in an e le m e n ta r y p sy c h o lo g y c o u r s e a t t h e b e g in n in g and c l o s e o f t h e s e m e s te r . The p u rp o se was t o f i n d o u t t h e e f f e c t s o f t h e p sy c h o lo g y c o u r s e upon s u p e r s t i t i o n s . One o f t h e g ro u p s t e s t e d was composed o f ( l i b e r a l a r t s t u d e n t s w h ile t h e o t h e r g ro u p c o n s i s t e d o f : 25 ! I ! (S tu d e n ts a t t e n d i n g e v e n in g c l a s s e s o f t h e School o f Commerce. The r e s u l t s showed t h a t b o th g ro u p s i n d i c a t e d th e y w ere l e s s s u p e r s t i t i o u s a f t e r t a k i n g t h e c o u r s e in p sy c h o lo g y . The l i b e r a l a r t s s t u d e n t s showed an a v e r a g e ^ re d u c tio n from 9 .5 8 s u p e r s t i t i o n s b e l i e v e d p r i o r t o t a k i n g j : *the c o u r s e t o 6 .1 5 a f t e r th e c o u r s e - - a mean l o s s o f 3 6 .8 ■per c e n t . The e v e n in g c l a s s s t u d e n t s i n d i c a t e d a lo s s o f 4 5 .2 p e r c e n t , a r e d u c t i o n from 1 1.9 8 t o 6 .5 8 . G i l l i l a n d i gave two r e a s o n s why t h e commerce c l a s s e s showed a g r e a t e r r e d u c t i o n on t h e t e s t r e s u l t s . F i r s t , t h e e v e n in g s t u d e n t s i n d i c a t e d g r e a t e r m a t u r i t y in t h a t th e y to o k t h e c o u r s e f o r i n t e r e s t r a t h e r th a n f o r t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f an academ ic r e q u i r e m e n t. Second, th e y hav e had l e s s c o l l e g e and w e re , t h e r e f o r e , more e a s i l y i n f l u e n c e d by h i g h e r e d u c a t i o n a l i n s t r u c t i o n . t ! j A s tu d y show ing t h e i n f l u e n c e o f i n t e l l i g e n c e and i p e r s o n a l i t y t r a i t s upon f a l s e b e l i e f s was c o n d u c te d by i jPowers (3 5 :4 9 0 -4 9 2 ) in 1931. N in e ty - s e v e n s t u d e n t s in ! f i r s t s e m e s te r p sy c h o lo g y c o u r s e s w ere u s e d . The t e s t c o n s i s t e d o f 95 o f t h e m ost p r e v a l e n t s u p e r s t i t i o n s ta k e n ifrom D r e s s l a r * s l i s t . The r e s u l t s showed a c o r r e l a t i o n | ibetween s u p e r s t i t i o n and e x t r o v e r s i o n o f .1 2 , betw een s u p e r s t i t i o n and i n t e l l i g e n c e .1 5 , and betw een i n t e l l i g e n c e s and e x t r o v e r s i o n .0 9 . The c o n c l u s i o n s drawn from t h e s e r e s u l t s show t h a t t h e r e i s n o t a h ig h d e g re e o f r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een any o f t h e f a c t o r s b e in g m e a su re d , t h a t i n t r o v e r t s a r e n o t more o r l e s s i n c l i n e d tow ard s u p e r s t i - f ' i t i o n , and h ig h i n t e l l i g e n c e does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y p r o t e c t an i n d i v i d u a l from s u p e r s t i t i o n s and f a l s e b e l i e f s . In 1933, Dudycha (1 7 :4 5 7 -4 6 4 ) to o k 853 freshm en ]and 305 s e n i o r s from t h i r t e e n m id -w e s te rn i n s t i t u t i o n s o f h i g h e r e d u c a tio n f o r t h e p u rp o se o f f i n d i n g o u t t h e m ost p o p u la r s u p e r s t i t i o n s among c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s . They w ere g iv e n a 2 5 - i te m t e s t d e a l i n g w i t h t h e p o p u la r s u p e r s t i t i o u s j b e l i e f s . Freshmen r e s p o n s e s showed: (1) t h a t 7 p e r c e n t o f t h e p o p u la r s u p e r s t i t i o n s w ere i m p l i c i t y b e l i e v e d , I (2) t h e r e was e v id e n c e o f an i n c l i n a t i o n tow ard a n o t h e r I |7 p e r c e n t , (3) t h e s t u d e n t s w ere n o n - c o m m itta l on 14 Iper c e n t , and (4) showed no i n c l i n a t i o n t o b e l i e v e in 8 p e r c e n t . S i x t y - f o u r p e r c e n t o f t h e s u p e r s t i t i o n s w ere i I a b s o l u t e l y d i s b e l i e v e d . R e s u l ts o f t h e s e n i o r s t u d e n t s w ere a b o u t t h e same. Dudycha c o n c lu d e d t h a t c o l l e g e j i n s t r u c t i o n does n o t n e c e s s a r i l y re d u c e s u p e r s t i t i o u s I b e l i e f s u n l e s s a s p e c i f i c a tt e m p t i s made t o do s o . Page ( 3 4 : 5 9 - 6 4 ) , in 1935, a tt e m p t e d t o e s t a b l i s h ' i i a r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e l i e f s and e m o tio n a l m a la d ju s tm e n t by com paring t h e number and k i n d o f s u p e r s t i t i o n s b e l i e v e d in by norm al i n d i v i d u a l s and p s y c h o t ic j i n d i v i d u a l s . The r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een i n t r o v e r s i o n and ^ s u p e r s t i t i o n was a l s o i n v e s t i g a t e d . F i f t y m a n ic - d e p r e s s i v e p a t i e n t s , 50 s c h i z o p h r e n ic p a t i e n t s , and 50 | h o s p i t a l a t t e n d a n t s w ere g iv e n a l i s t o f 25 p o p u l a r s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e l i e f s . A l l o f t h o s e t a k i n g t h e t e s t came from s i m i l a r c u l t u r a l b a c k g ro u n d s . Page found t h a t t h e psy ch o tic p a t i e n t s b e l i e v e d tw ic e as many s u p e r s t i t i o n s as t h e a t t e n d a n t s . He a l s o found t h a t t h o s e p a t i e n t s who w ere (th e m ost i n t r o v e r t e d te n d t o b e l i e v e in more s u p e r s t i t i o n s . |However, t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p i s n o t v a l i d f o r n orm al i n d i - j v i d u a l s . , V a l e n t in e ( 4 0 :6 3 3 - 6 5 8 ) , in 1936, gave 773 men and 665 women an 8 7 - ite m t e s t d e a l i n g w i t h c e r t a i n p o p u la r m is c o n c e p t i o n s . The c o n c l u s i o n s drawn from t h i s e x p e rim e n t i n d i c a t e d t h a t c o l l e g e i n s t r u c t i o n i s to o g e n e r a l . V a l e n t in e s t a t e s : "Only a few s t u d e n t s a r e c a p a b le o f i n c o r p o r a t i n g s c i e n t i f i c p r i n c i p l e s i n t o t h e i r e v e ry d a y j H i v e s u n a id e d by an i n s t r u c t o r " (4 0 :6 5 3 ) . B lackow ski ( 1 3 :3 4 7 - 3 6 1 ), in 1937, s t u d i e d t h e m a g ic a l b e h a v i o r o f 49 u n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s in Germany. Twenty p e r c e n t s t a t e d th e y had n o t e x p e r ie n c e d any m a g ic a l phenomena. Eighty p e r c e n t r e l a t e d t h a t th e y a t ; I i t h e p r e s e n t o r f o r m e r ly had come i n t o c o n t a c t w i t h m agic. 1 T h is e x p e rim e n t o f B la c k o w sk i, a lo n g w i t h h i s e x p e rim e n t w i t h gymnasium s t u d e n t s , showed t h a t u n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s j p r a c t i c e m agic l e s s th a n i n d i v i d u a l s in lo w er g r a d e s . ! B lackow ski f e l t t h a t t h e r e a s o n f o r t h i s l i e s in t h e f a c t t h a t t h e u n i v e r s i t y does n o t make t h e same demands a s ; does t h e gymnasium; t h e r e f o r e , l e s s f e a r i s f e l t by t h e u n i v e r s i t y s t u d e n t s , and t h e n e e d f o r t h e a p p l i c a t i o n o f m agic i s n o t a s p ro fo u n d . The same y e a r , a t Temple U n i v e r s i t y , H a r t e r (27: 119-129) gave t h e G a r r e t t and F i s h e r Q u e s t i o n n a i r e t o 94 women and 154 men s t u d e n t s in an e le m e n ta r y p sy c h o lo g y c l a s s . The p u rp o se was t o s tu d y t h e e f f e c t s o f p sy c h o - j : l o g i c a l t r a i n i n g upon b e l i e f in c e r t a i n m is c o n c e p tio n s . T h is was g iv e n a t t h e b e g in n in g o f t h e c o u rs e and a g a in i i a t t h e c l o s e o f t h e c o u r s e . The r e s u l t s o f t h e f i r s t j ! t e s t p r e s e n t a t i o n showed a 9 .4 mean f o r t h e s t a te m e n t s > i m arked t r u e by t h e men, w h ile t h e women had a mean o f | i 9 .2 m arked t r u e . The seco n d p r e s e n t a t i o n a f t e r t h e | I 29 | j j jp sy c h o lo g y c o u r s e was ta k e n showed a d ro p t o 3 .2 f o r b o th i !s e x e s . I t was c o n c lu d e d t h a t b e l i e f in m is c o n c e p tio n s ; i s s u s t a i n e d by l a c k o f i n f o r m a t i o n . T here was a l s o a low c o r r e l a t i o n betw een a c c e p ta n c e o f m is c o n c e p t i o n s , i n t e l - i ! ! i l i g e n c e , and s c h o l a r s h i p . | Hancock ( 2 6 :2 0 8 - 2 1 3 ), in 1940, gave 292 m isco n - !c e p t i o n ite m s t o 53 e x p e r ie n c e d s c i e n c e t e a c h e r s f o r t h e ! ; p u rp o se o f d e te r m in in g t h e r e l a t i v e im p o rta n c e o f c e r t a i n I ’m is c o n c e p tio n s in s c i e n c e . The r e s u l t s i n d i c a t e d t h a t h e a l t h m is c o n c e p tio n s head t h e l i s t f o r a f f e c t i n g b e h a v io r o f t h e more c r e d u l o u s . Emme (2 0 :2 7 9 ) , in 1940, t e s t e d 96 s t u d e n t s in two g e n e r a l p sy c h o lo g y c l a s s e s . T hree t e s t s w ere u se d : i n t e l l i g e n c e t e s t p ro v id e d by th e Am erican C o u n c il f o r E ducation, t h e B e l l A d ju stm en t I n v e n to r y and T h u rsto n P e r s o n a l i t y S c h e d u le , and a 4 7 - ite m s u p e r s t i t i o n t e s t . T hese t e s t s w ere a d m i n i s t e r e d a t t h r e e d i f f e r e n t t i m e s - - b e f o r e th e i [p sy c h o lo g y s t u d y , t h r e e weeks a f t e r i t had b eg u n , and a t i t h e end o f t h e c o u r s e . The r e s u l t s showed t h a t s p e c i f i c i n s t r u c t i o n re d u c e d b e l i e f in s u p e r s i t i o n s from a 2.67 mean a v e r a g e s c o r e t o .6 7 . The p a r e n t s w ere found t o be t h e p rim a ry f a c t o r in t h e m o ti v a t i o n o f s u p e r s t i t i o u s | b e l i e f s . N o n s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n was foun d betw een 30 • i s u p e r s i t i o u s b e l i e f s and e m o tio n . T here was a n e g a t i v e ;c o r r e l a t i o n betw een i n t e l l i g e n c e and b e l i e f in s u p e r - j s t i t i o n s . A n o th e r s tu d y in 1940 found R alya (3 7 :7 2 7 -7 3 4 ) i ! ■ i !t e s t i n g 325 e n t e r i n g c o l l e g e freshm en on s i g n i f i c a n t c o n - i I c e p ts and b e l i e f s in a stro n o m y and g e o lo g y . The r e s u l t s show a p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een s c h o l a s t i c a p t i t u d e and t h e number o f m is c o n c e p t i o n s . j The f o llo w in g y e a r R alya (3 6 :3 1 4 -3 2 0 ) exam ined t h e c o n c e p ts and b e l i e f s o f e n t e r i n g c o l l e g e freshm en in a n th r o p o lo g y and b i o l o g y . A n o th e r p u rp o se was t o f i n d t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een s c o r e s made on t h e s e c o r r e c t c o n c e p t s and s c h o l a s t i c a p t i t u d e s . The r e s u l t s show t h a t t h o s e w ith t h e h i g h e s t s c h o l a s t i c a p t i t u d e d id b e t t e r i i on t h e t e s t o f s p e c i f i c c o n c e p ts and b e l i e f s th a n t h o s e I s t u d e n t s w i t h t h e lo w e st s c h o l a s t i c a p t i t u d e . i I Emme (2 0 :2 7 9 - 2 9 0 ), in t h e same y e a r , c o n d u c te d a jsu p p le m e n ta ry s tu d y o f b e l i e f s by c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s . T h is f o llo w - u p s tu d y showed t h a t s p e c i f i c i n s t r u c t i o n re d u c e d th e b e l i e f s in s u p e r s t i t i o n s from 5 .8 3 mean a v e r a g e t o 2 .9 6 . T here was no s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n betw een s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e l i e f s and e m o tio n . And t h e r e was a s t r o n g [n e g a tiv e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een i n t e l l i g e n c e and s u p e r s t i t i o n .■ |T h u s , b o th s t u d i e s made by Emme gave a b o u t t h e same I !r e s u l t s . ; In 1943 B runschw ig (1 4 :1 1 1 -1 2 6 ) g ave a 4 5 - ite m | t e s t on p o p u la r m is c o n c e p tio n s in p sy c h o lo g y t o 41 Negro men s t u d e n t s and t o 66 Negro women s t u d e n t s e n r o l l e d in a Negro c o l l e g e . The f i n d i n g s showed t h a t t h e women s t u - :d e n ts a v e ra g e d a s l i g h t l y l a r g e r number o f m is c o n c e p tio n s th a n t h e men. A n o th e r t e s t was g iv e n a t t h e c l o s e o f t h e s e m e s te r and b o th se x e s s c o r e d p r o p o r t i o n a t e l y lo w e r. T h is p e r c e n t a g e o f m is c o n c e p tio n s was n o t s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r th a n th o s e o f o t h e r g ro u p s . In 1952, L e v i t t (2 8 :4 4 3 -4 4 9 ) r e l e a s e d h i s s tu d y o f a co m p a riso n betw een d a t a on s u p e r s t i t i o n s in 1925 and I s u p e r s t i t i o n d a t a in 1950. One h u n d red and t e n men, |e n r o l l e d in a p sy c h o lo g y c o u r s e a t t h e Columbia S chool i o f G e n e ra l S t u d i e s , to o k t h e Nixon q u e s t i o n n a i r e . The i I jc o n c lu s io n s a r e a s f o l lo w s : The d a t a show s, in g e n e r a l , t h a t s u p e r s t i - i t i o n s c u r r e n t in 1925 a r e e x t i n c t to d a y . Only j 1 o f 27 s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e l i e f s w hich fou nd p u b l i c c r e d e n c e 2 y e a r s ago can now be c o n s i d e r e d e x t a n t . S i g n i f i c a n t i s t h e d e c l i n e o f s u p e r s t i t i o n s c o n c e rn in g p h re n o lo g y and physiognom y. On t h e o t h e r h a n d , s u p e r s t i t i o n s f a l l in t h e c a t e g o r i e s o f m a g ic a l and n a t u r a l phenomena, and i n t e l l i g e n c e and o t h e r m e n ta l c o n d i t i o n s ; w h ile r e l a t i v e l y e x t i n c t , w i l l p ro b a b ly f i n d | modern r e p la c e m e n t. (2 8 :4 9 4 ) “ ' 3 2 ' ““! | ; L e v i t t f u r t h e r s t a t e s : i I 1 W hile i t may be s a i d t h a t s u p e r s t i t i o n s o f 25 y e a r s ago a r e d e a d , i t c a n n o t be c o n c lu d e d t h a t p e o p le o f to d a y a r e l e s s s u p e r s t i t i o u s th a n th e p r e c e d in g g e n e r a t i o n . The n a t u r e o f t h e un fo u n d ed b e l i e f s , how ever, h a s u n d e rg o n e a l t e r a - j t i o n s w i t h t h e y e a r s ; i f p h re n o lo g y no lo n g e r ! f i n d s p o p u la r c r e d e n c e , m is c o n c e p tio n s c o n c e rn in g p s y c h i a t r y , p sy c h o lo g y , and p ro b a b ly ato m ic ; e n e rg y a p p e a r on t h e r i s e . (2 8 :4 4 5 ) ; Dzenowagis ( 1 9 :4 4 - 4 8 ) , in 1954, s t u d i e d t h e e x t e n t j t o w hich 55 p r o s p e c t i v e e le m e n ta ry s c h o o l t e a c h e r s w ere j aw are o f t h e h a rm fu l e f f e c t s o f c e r t a i n h e a l t h and s a f e t y m i s c o n c e p t i o n s . A 2 1 8 -ite m t e s t was g iv e n t o t h e g ro u p . The ite m s c o n s i s t e d o f 187 h e a l t h m is c o n c e p tio n s and 29 i s a f e t y m is c o n c e p t i o n s . I t was foun d t h a t from 5 p e r c e n t ; t o 60 p e r c e n t o f t h e p r o s p e c t i v e t e a c h e r s s u b s c r i b e d | t o 82 o f t h e 218 ite m s . C ro w e ll ( 1 6 :1 2 3 -1 2 9 ), in 1957, gave a q u e s t i o n n a i r e i ;d e a l i n g w i t h anim ism t o 225 s t u d e n t s in a p sy c h o lo g y c o u r s e * a t t h e U n i v e r s i t y o f H aw aii. The f i n d i n g s showed t h a t a p p r o x im a te ly 70 p e r c e n t o f t h o s e who to o k t h e q u e s t i o n - i I n a i r e b e l i e v e d in some form o f a n im i s t ic , t h i n k i n g . S e v e n ty - n i n e p e r c e n t o f th e freshm en showed e v id e n c e o f a n i m i s t i c j th i n k i n g a s com pared w i t h 61 p e r c e n t f o r t h e u p p e r c l a s s - jmen. An a v e r a g e o f a p p r o x im a te ly 14 p o i n t s h i g h e r was (s c o re d on t h e c o l l e g e a p t i t u d e by th o s e who d id n o t indicate; jan y a n i m i s t i c t h i n k i n g on t h e q u e s t i o n n a i r e . Summary T here have been many s t u d i e s c o n c e rn in g s u p e r s t i t i o n s and m is c o n c e p t i o n s . P e o p le in t h e f i e l d o f p s y c h o l- , i jo g y , s o c i o l o g y , e d u c a t i o n , and o t h e r r e l a t e d f i e l d s hav e I c o n d u c te d s t u d i e s on t h e ways and means o f r e d u c in g e rr o n e o u s b e l i e f s . I t was t h e p u rp o se o f t h i s c h a p t e r t o ! b r i e f l y g iv e an a c c o u n t o f w hat h as been a t t e m p t e d , t h e r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d , and some o f t h e more im p o r ta n t c o n c l u s io n s drawn from t h e s e e x p e r im e n ts . B e l i e f s o f e le m e n ta ry sc h o o l c h i l d r e n . --O n ly one s tu d y was o b t a i n e d r e g a r d i n g t h e b e l i e f s o f e le m e n ta r y i s c h o o l c h i l d r e n . The p u rp o se o f t h i s s tu d y was t o f i n d o u t t h e c h i l d r e n ’s s a f e t y and h e a l t h b e l i e f s . I t was c o n - i jclu d ed from t h e e x p e r im e n ta l r e s u l t s t h a t f i f t h and s i x t h i ig rade c h i l d r e n hav e many h a rm fu l h e a l t h and s a f e t y b e l i e f s . j B e l i e f s o f j u n i o r h ig h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s . - - I n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e rn in g t h e b e l i e f s o f j u n i o r h ig h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s was ! g a t h e r e d from tw e lv e i n d i v i d u a l s t u d i e s . A su m m a riz a tio n \ I lof t h e f i n d i n g s o f t h e s e s t u d i e s i s as f o l lo w s : I I 1. The more i n t e l l i g e n t p u p i l s have few er s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e l i e f s th a n t h o s e p u p i l s o f l e s s i n t e l l i g e n c e . I t was p o i n te d o u t t h a t e v e ry l e v e l o f i n t e l l i g e n c e i s i | w e l l s to c k e d w ith s u p e r s t i t i o n s . i i ' 2. S c i e n t i f i c i n s t r u c t i o n d e c r e a s e s s u p e r s t i t i o u s j ! i 1 b e l i e f s i f i t i s s p e c i f i c a l l y d e s ig n e d f o r t h i s p u rp o s e . ( i 1 The p r o b a b i l i t y o f a g e n e r a l s c i e n c e c o u r s e d im in is h in g s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e l i e f s w i t h o u t t h i s g o a l in mind i s n o t i v e ry g r e a t . 3. Boys te n d t o b e l i e v e in few er s u p e r s t i t i o n s th a n g i r l s . \ | 4 . Younger p u p i l s a r e b e l i e v e d t o be more s u p e r - i j s t i t i o u s th a n t h e i r o l d e r c l a s s m a t e s . I ’ 5. F e a r b e a r s a p o s i t i v e r e l a t i o n s h i p t o s u p e r s t i t i o n . I t i s a l s o one c a u s e o f s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e l i e f s . 6. T here a p p e a rs t o be a r e l a t i o n s h i p betw een i s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e l i e f s and t h e ty p e o f l i t e r a t u r e p r e f e r r e d . i Those who r e a d s c i e n c e books a r e l e s s s u p e r s t i t i o u s th a n th o s e who p r e f e r f i c t i o n l i t e r a t u r e . I J 7. T h ere i s an i n d i c a t i o n t h a t d e l i n q u e n t boys a r e more s u p e r s t i t i o u s th a n n o n - d e l i n q u e n t b o y s. One | s tu d y showed t h e d e l i n q u e n t s t o be tw ic e as s u p e r s t i t i o u s j i a s n o n - d e l i n q u e n t s . The k in d s o f s u p e r s t i t i o n s b e l i e v e d by b o th g ro u p s w e re , how ever, a b o u t t h e same. 8. P u p i l s from t h e low er so c io ec o n o m ic l e v e l s a p p e a r t o have more s u p e r s t i t i o n s th a n do p u p i l s from h i g h e r l e v e l s . 9. The p a p e r - a n d - p e n c i l t e s t s a r e a v a l i d means o f t e s t i n g s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e l i e f s . B e l i e f s o f h ig h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s . - - F o u r s t u d i e s w ere foun d d e a l i n g w i t h h ig h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s . The f i n d in g s a r e a s f o l lo w s : 1. G i r l s a r e more s u p e r s t i t i o u s th a n b o y s. 2. One o f t h e m ajo r c a u s e s o f s u p e r s t i t i o n i s l a c k o f i n f o r m a t i o n . E d u c a tio n and e x p e r i e n c e re d u c e e rr o n e o u s b e l i e f s . 3. F e a r and a n x i e t y c a u se d by t h e s c h o o l e n v i r o n ment c o n t r i b u t e t o m a g ic a l b e l i e f s . 4. F a l l a c i e s h a v e a r a n k o r d e r o f d i f f i c u l t y w hich i s n o t a f f e c t e d by s c h o l a s t i c s t a n d i n g , s e x , m e n ta l a g e , o r g ra d e l e v e l . The a b i l i t y o f t h e s t u d e n t t o r e c o g n i z e f a l l a c i e s i s im proved w i t h more ad v anced i n s t r u c t i o n . 5. S e n io r s from l a r g e r com m unities a r e l e s s s u p e r s t i t i o u s th a n s e n i o r s from s m a ll e r tow ns. B e l i e f s o f c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s . - - I n f o r m a t i o n c o n c e r n - , in g t h e b e l i e f s o f c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s was found in tw e n ty - I ! t h r e e s t u d i e s . The r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d a r e a s f o llo w s : i ' 1. S p e c i f i c i n s t r u c t i o n re d u c e s t h e number o f i s u p e r s t i t i o n s and m is c o n c e p t i o n s . C o lle g e i n s t r u c t i o n i s I to o g e n e r a l and w i l l n o t n e c e s s a r i l y re d u c e unfoun ded ■ b e l i e f s . I 2. Women have h e a r d o f and b e l i e v e in more un fo u n d ed b e l i e f s th a n men. I t i s a l s o s u g g e s te d t h a t i ! men outgrow u nfou nded b e l i e f s e a s i e r th a n women. i ! 3. Most i n v e s t i g a t i o n s s t a t e ther,e i s no c l o s e i ' c o r r e l a t i o n betw een t h e i n t e l l i g e n c e o f c o l l e g e p e o p le ( and t h e number o f s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e l i e f s . : 4 . T here a r e c o n f l i c t i n g o p in io n s as t o w h e th e r t h e r e i s a s i g n i f i c a n t c o r r e l a t i o n betw een em otions and s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e l i e f s . 5. A p o s i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n e x i s t s betw een s c h o l a s t i c a p t i t u d e and t h e number o f m is c o n c e p t i o n s . 6. Lack o f in f o r m a ti o n i s h e ld a s a c a u s e f o r i b e l i e f in m is c o n c e p tio n s . I 7. One i n v e s t i g a t i o n found t h a t a lt h o u g h c o l l e g e s t u d e n t s have h e a r d o f . a h i g h e r number o f e rr o n e o u s b e l i e f s th a n h ig h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s , th e y b e l i e v e in few er 37 jof them and t h e i r a c t i o n s a r e i n f l u e n c e d l e s s th a n th e h ig h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s . 8. C o lle g e s t u d e n t s b e l i e v e l e s s in m agic th a n h ig h s c h o o l s t u d e n t s . T his la c k o f b e l i e f i s a t t r i b u t e d t o t h e a ssu m p tio n t h a t t h e r e i s l e s s f e a r o f s c h o o l work and a s s ig n m e n ts . 9. T here i s no p o s t i t i v e c o r r e l a t i o n betw een s u p e r s t i t i o n and i n t r o v e r s i o n in n orm al i n d i v i d u a l s . In - r e l a t i o n t o t h i s , one i n v e s t i g a t i o n found t h a t t h e more i n t r o v e r t e d m e n ta l p a t i e n t s w e re , t h e more s u p e r s t i t i o n s w ere e n c o u n te r e d . I t was a l s o found t h a t n o rm al i n d i v i d u a l s w ere l e s s s u p e r s t i t i o u s th a n p s y c h o t i c s . 10. N egroes do n o t b e l i e v e in a s i g n i f i c a n t l y h i g h e r number o f m is c o n c e p tio n s th a n t h e r e s t o f th e p o p u l a t i o n . t i | 11. P a r e n t s a r e one o f t h e m a jo r f a c t o r s in e s t a b t i W ish in g s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e l i e f s . i 12. P eo p le to d a y a r e j u s t a s s u p e r s t i t i o u s a s i t h e p r e c e d in g g e n e r a t i o n and t h e f o l lo w in g g e n e r a t i o n s a r e n o t l i k e l y t o be f r e e from s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e l i e f s . CHAPTER I I I l REASONS FOR BELIEF IN SUPERSTITIONS j ! i I n t r o d u c t i o n J i T hroughout t h e h i s t o r y o f m ankind, s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e l i e f s have been p r e v a l e n t . J a s tr o w g i v e s t h e s h o r t e s t and m ost c o n c i s e r e a s o n why man b e l i e v e s in s u p e r s t i t i o n s . He s t a t e s i t a s , "M an's i n n e r n eed t o e x p la in e v e r y t h in g " ( 6 :2 0 1 ) . S a n ta y a n a g i v e s t h i s s i m i l a r e x p l a n a t i o n a s t o why man b e l i e v e s in s u p e r s t i t i o n . "What e s t a b l i s h e s s u p e r s t i t i o n i s h a s t e t o u n d e r s t a n d , r a s h c o n f i d e n c e in t h e m o ral i n t e l l i g i b i l i t y o f t h i n g s " ( 1 0 : 2 3 ) . Man b e l i e v e s in s u p e r s t i t i o n s b e c a u s e he i s man. In t h e p a s t , t h i s was h i s way o f e x p l a i n i n g w hat he e x p e r i e n c e d . Today t h i s ty p e o f r e a s o n i n g i s no lo n g e r a p p l i c a b l e in a j i s c i e n t i f i c w o rld . T h is c h a p t e r a t t e m p t s b r i e f l y t o g iv e f o u r r e a s o n s why man h a s alw ays b e l i e v e d in s u p e r s t i t i o n and why man w i l l c o n ti n u e t o b e l i e v e in s u p e r s t i t i o n . I t i s r e c o g n iz e d t h a t t h i s c l a s s i f i c a t i o n i n t o f o u r p a r t s i s a r t i f i c i a l and i t h a t i t i s by no means f i x e d o r s t a n d a r d . I t was j a s c e r t a i n e d t h a t t h e i n f o r m a tio n o b t a i n e d a p p e a re d t o f i t | more l o g i c a l l y w i t h i n t h e fram ew ork o f t h e s e c a t e g o r i e s . F e a r F e a r h a s lon g been r e g a r d e d by many as t h e o r i g i n o f s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e l i e f . In t h i s day and age we hav e been t r a i n e d t o r e g a r d e v e n ts a s t a k i n g p l a c e a c c o r d in g t o n a t u r a l l a w s . Whenever an e v e n t c a n n o t be e x p la in e d in t h i s m anner, o t h e r e x p l a n a t i o n s a r e g iv e n , su ch a s m i r a c l e s o r s u p e r n a t u r a l phenomena ( 4 : 1 6 ) . I t h a s ta k e n man num erous y e a r s t o d i s c o v e r s c i e n t i f i c laws and p r i n - ! c i p l e s o f n a t u r e , and i t sh o u ld n o t be f o r g o t t e n t h a t our p r i m i t i v e a n c e s t o r s knew l i t t l e o f t h e s e law s. Whenever t h e s e p e o p le w ere s u b j e c t t o an u n e x p la in e d phenomena such as l i g h t n i n g o r th u n d e r , f e a r was t h e n a t u r a l r e s u l t . Even to d a y i t i s e v id e n t t h a t f e a r and ig n o r a n c e w alk hand in hand ( 3 : 2 0 ) . F e a r i s a l s o a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e m e n ta l and p h y s i - i c a l c o n s t i t u t i o n o f t h e i n d i v i d u a l . F e a r i s l i k e l y t o i be more i n t e n s e when t h e body i s t i r e d o r s i c k o r when i t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s in a s t a t e o f a n x i e t y . The more f e a r f u l t h e i n d i v i d u a l b e co m es, t h e more s u s c e p t i b l e he i s t o c h a n g in g h i s b e l i e f s . S a r g a n t s t a t e s t h e f o l lo w in g : 40 Those who w is h t o d i s p e r s e wrong b e l i e f s and b e h a v io r p a t t e r n s and a f t e r w a r d im p la n t s a n e r b e l i e f s and a t t i t u d e s , a r e more l i k e l y t o a c h ie v e s u c c e s s i f th e y can f i r s t in d u c e some d e g re e o f n e rv o u s t e n s i o n , o r s t i r up i s u f f i c i e n t f e e l i n g s o f a n g e r o r a n x i e t y t o s e c u r e t h e p e r s o n ’ s u n d iv id e d a t t e n t i o n and p o s s i b l y i n c r e a s e h i s s u g g e s t i b i l i t y . By i n c r e a s i n g o r p r o lo n g in g s t r e s s e s in v a r i o u s w ays, o r in d u c in g i p h y s i c a l d e b i l i t a t i o n , a more th o ro u g h a l t e r a t i o n | o f t h e p e r s o n 's t h i n k i n g p r o c e s s e s may be a c h ie v e d . The im m ediate e f f e c t o f su c h t r e a t ment i s u s u a l l y t o im p a ir judgm ent and t o i n c r e a s e s u g g e s t i b i l i t y ; and th o u g h when t h e t e n s io n i s removed t h e s u g g e s t i b i l i t y l i k e w i s e d i m i n i s h e s , y e t i d e a s im p la n te d w h ile i t l a s t e d may re m a in . (1 1 :5 9 ) I t i s common know ledge t h a t p e o p le u n d e r e m o tio n a l j s t r e s s a r e s u b j e c t t o a c t i o n s o f an i r r a t i o n a l n a t u r e . i i 'F o r exam ple, t h e m o th er o f a m is s in g se rv ic e m a n may be a t t r a c t e d t o f o r t u n e t e l l e r s ; l i k e w i s e a s o l d i e r may w ear a g o o d -lu c k p i e c e when g o in g i n t o b a t t l e . These exam ples p o i n t o u t t h a t man m ust s t r i v e t o m a i n t a i n an e m o tio n a l b a l a n c e . Under t h e w e ig h t o f an e m o tio n a l s t r e s s , man m ust f i n d some d e v ic e w hich w i l l l e s s e n h i s i f e a r s ( 3 1 :5 9 2 ). , The f e a r t h a t unknown c a l a m i t i e s may b e f a l l man i s a n o t h e r re a s o n f o r s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e l i e f s . F e a r i s i | p ro vok ed by t h i n g s w hich a r e s t r a n g e and u n u s u a l; t h e r e f o r e , a n y th in g t h a t hap p en s o u t o f t h e o r d i n a r y i s a s ig n w hich may be i n t e r p r e t e d a s an omen o f c a l a m i t y . M an's f e a r o f t h e unknown c a n , t h e r e f o r e , be b a se d on t h e b e l i e f ! | t h a t t h e u n i v e r s e and h i s d e s t i n y a r e in t h e hands o f I ! t h e gods and t h a t t h e s e gods a r e c a p r i c i o u s and c o n t r o l 1 m a n 's lu c k , good o r b ad. For t h i s r e a s o n , man m ust make e v e ry e f f o r t t o e x p la in and i n t e r p r e t g o o d - lu c k o r b a d - , lu c k omens. S a n ta y a n a s t a t e s , "T h at f e a r f i r s t c r e a t e d ! t h e gods i s p e rh a p s a s t r u e a s a n y th in g so b r i e f c o u ld be , on so g r e a t a s u b j e c t " ( 1 0 :1 2 8 ) . N a t u r a l o c c u r r e n c e s , t h e r e f o r e , a r e o f t e n i n t e r p r e t e d a s s i g n s o f e i t h e r good o r e v i l , d e p en d in g upon t h e c ir c u m s ta n c e s c o n n e c te d w i t h t j them . G o o d -lu ck charms a r e th e n worn in o r d e r t o p r e v e n t a f e a r f u l e x p e r i e n c e from t a k i n g p l a c e ( 1 : 1 4 ) . T his d e s i r e f o r l a s t i n g a ch ie v e m e n t o v e r f u t u r e e v e n t s , w hich , may c a u s e s u f f e r i n g and m i s f o r t u n e , i s one r e a s o n why some i n d i v i d u a l s s u b s t i t u t e s u p e r s t i t i o u s b e l i e f s in p l a c e o f a sy ste m o f r a t i o n a l t h i n k i n g , w h ich a c t u a l l y would h e l p them t o a d j u s t t o t h e i r n a t u r a l s u r r o u n d i n g s . Poor Logic Man i s in a h u r r y t o e x p la in a l l phenomena. T his j h a s t e le a d s him in many i n s t a n c e s t o f a l s e c o n c l u s i o n s . T hese c o n c l u s i o n s a r e t h e r e a s o n why many s u p e r s t i t i o n s and m is c o n c e p tio n s have n o t y e t d i e d o u t and why new ! ones a r e c o n t i n u o u s l y b e in g p r o c r e a t e d . Man sh o u ld n o t i ' s a c r i f i c e r e a s o n f o r s im p le s o l u t i o n s o f h i s d i f f i c u l t i e s . j ’ 1 S a n ta y a n a s t a t e s t h e f o l lo w in g : . . . t h e f o l l i e s o f an i n t e l l i g e n t and e a g e r c r e a t u r e , r e s t l e s s in a w o rld i t c a n n o t a t once m a s te r and com prehend. They a r e t h e e r r o r s o f r e a s o n , w a n d e rin g s in t h e b y - p a th s o f p h ilo s o p h y , n o t due t o l a c k o f f a i t h in la w s, b u t r a t h e r t o a p re m a tu re v i v a c i t y in c a t c h i n g a t la w s , a v i v a c i t y m is le a d by in a d e q u a te i n f o r m a t i o n . The h u n g e r f o r f a c i l e wisdom i s t h e r o o t o f a l l f a l s e p h ilo s o p h y . (1 0 :2 4 ) Our p r i m it i v e a n c e s t o r s had no id e a o f th e n a tu r e o f c a u se and e f f e c t . When two e v e n ts o c cu rr ed one a f t e r i ; t h e o t h e r , th e y r e a s o n e d t h a t t h e f i r s t e v e n t was t h e i c a u s e o f t h e seco n d e v e n t t a k i n g p l a c e r e g a r d l e s s o f t h e n a t u r e o f t h e e v e n t s . T h is i s a m is c o n c e p tio n o f t h e n a t u r e o f t h e p a r t i c u l a r laws w hich g o vern c a u s e and e f f e c t . T his ty p e o f m is c o n c e p tio n i s s t i l l w id e ly b e l i e v e d . Take f o r exam ple t h e b l a c k - c a t s u p e r s t i t i o n . An i n d i v i d u a l may be g o in g a b o u t h i s d a i l y r o u t i n e when a b l a c k c a t scam pers a c r o s s h i s p a th . He remembers w hat h a s been s a i d a b o u t an e v e n t su ch a s t h i s . L a t e r , some i u n f o r t u n a t e e v e n t t a k e s p l a c e , su ch a s an a u to m o b ile i | a c c i d e n t . The m ishap i s th e n p r o j e c t e d t o t h e b l a c k c a t . i T h is c o i n c i d e n c e , t h e o c c u r r e n c e o f two e v e n ts h a p p e n in g I c l o s e t o g e t h e r , te n d s t o make many p e o p le b e l i e v e t h e r e jm u st be some c o n n e c tio n betw een them. An i n d i v i d u a l ’s l o g i c a l a s s u m p tio n s a r e n o t alw ays i s o l a t e d from h i s e m o tio n s . S u p e r s t i t i o n s and m is c o n c e p t i o n s d e a l i n g w i t h r a c i a l p r e j u d i c e show t h i s r e l a t i o n s h i p . j * t A p r e j u d i c e i s a p r e c o n c e iv e d i d e a , and t h i s id e a u s u a l l y ' ih a s an e m o tio n a l t i n t . Thus, i t i s e a sy f o r some p e o p le t o b e l i e v e a l l Negros a r e l a z y o r a l l M exicans a r e d i r t y ! b e c a u se th e y hav e o b s e rv e d t h e s e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s in some c a s e s . T hese i n d i v i d u a l s w i l l n o t l i s t e n when i t i s p o i n te r o u t t h a t t h e i r e x p e r i e n c e s to o k in o n ly a s m a ll sam ple o f t h e Negro p o p u l a t i o n o r o f t h e M exican p o p u l a t i o n . Emotions c a n n o t be s e p a r a t e d from an i n d i v i d u a l ’ s r a t i o n a l i t y , and t h e r e i s no r e a s o n f o r t r y i n g t o i s o l a t e t h e tw o. T here m ust b e , how ever, some form o f m e n ta l a c t i v i t y w hich w i l l e n a b le t h e p e rs o n t o exam ine a l l t h e e v id e n c e a v a i l a b l e i t o c a s t o u t p r e c o n c e iv e d n o t i o n s so t h a t c o r r e c t c o n c lu - | i s io n s can be drawn from t h e a v a i l a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n . I i j Man has n o t y e t a c q u i r e d t h e h a b i t o f c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g . Man i s l a z y , and t h i n k i n g i s t e d i o u s . He need s 1 t o a c q u i r e t h e h a b i t o f t h i n k i n g in a s c i e n t i f i c m anner. i i I t i s t h e p u rp o se o f any h a b i t t o e n a b le t h e i n d i v i d u a l t o a u t o m a t i c a l l y re s p o n d t o so m eth in g w i t h a minimum o f c o n s c io u s e f f o r t . I f man would e s t a b l i s h t h e h a b i t o f I | 44 , c r i t i c a l t h i n k i n g when a new p ro b lem a r i s e s , t h e c h a n c e s o f h i s s u p p ly in g a f a l s e e x p l a n a t i o n , m aking a r a s h c o n - i I e l u s i o n , o r s t a t i n g an e rro n e o u s g e n e r a l i z a t i o n w ould be ' r e d u c e d . T r a d i t i o n T r a d i t i o n h a s a t w o - f o l d p u rp o se d e a l i n g w ith s u p e r s t i t i o n s and m is c o n c e p t i o n s . I t i s r e s p o n s i b l e f o r p e o p le b e l i e v i n g in t h e s e b e l i e f s and k e e p s many o f them from d y in g o u t . Hardw ick s a y s : A n a t i o n a l r e l i g i o n may be changed in a i r e l a t i v e l y s h o r t p e r i o d o f tim e , b u t s u p e r s t i t i o n and t r a d i t i o n in some form o r o t h e r , h o ld ! t h e i r own am ongst t h e p o p u la c e f o r a g e s a f t e r i t h e i r o r i g i n a l s i g n i f i c a n c e h a s p e r i s h e d . (5: 284) A lth o u g h t h e p e r s i s t e n c e o f e rr o n e o u s b e l i e f s i s in many r e s p e c t s due t o t r a d i t i o n , i t m ust be r e a l i z e d t h a t t h e s e b e l i e f s c o u ld n o t e f f e c t i v e l y c o n ti n u e i f t h e r e was n o t a p r e d i s p o s i t i o n on t h e p a r t o f t h e p o p u la c e o r t h e j i n d i v i d u a l t o a c c e p t i t . T h is p r e d i s p o s i t i o n h a s been ; handed down th r o u g h t h e a g e s a lo n g w i t h t h e unfoun ded i I b e l i e f s . Most i n d i v i d u a l s a r e n o t aw are o f t h e o r i g i n ! o f many s u p e r s t i t i o n s , y e t th ro u g h t r a d i t i o n many o f t h e i r b e l i e f s and a c t i o n s a r e i n f l u e n c e d by them. 45 A g r e a t many custom s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o f a l e s s adv an ced s t a g e in s o c i a l and i n t e l l e c t u a l e v o l u t i o n s u r v i v e i n t o h i g h e r s t a g e s , e i t h e r | a s m e a n in g le s s and f o s s i l i z e d custom s o r b e c a u se I a new s i g n i f i c a n c e and u s e h a s been found f o r them . Thus many p e rfo rm a n c e s o r i g i n a l l y magic i s u r v i v e more o r l e s s m o d if ie d , a s games f o r c h i l d r e n o r a d u l t s ; a new u s e , t h e s a t i s f a c t i o n o f t h e p la y i n s t i n c t , h a s been found in them , b u t in t h e i r d e t a i l s th e y show, on i n v e s t i g a t i o n and c o m p a ris o n , t r a c e s o f t h e i r o r i g i n a l p u r p o s e s . (4 9 :5 7 8 ) T r a d i t i o n in o u r l i v e s h a s many im p o r ta n t f a c e t s . I t h e lp s in one way t o p r e s e r v e many d e s i r a b l e c u sto m s. ! I t h a s , how ever, s e r i o u s l y ham pered o u r s o c i e t y in two i w ays: f i r s t , by e s t a b l i s h i n g do gm atic view s and r i t u a l s i w hich in many i n s t a n c e s d e t e r p ro g re s s,, and se c o n d , by p r e s e r v i n g many s u p e r s t i t i o n s and m is c o n c e p tio n s ,s o m e o f w hich may be h a r m f u l. Man i s n e v e r f r e e from t h e p a s t , ! f o r t h e p a s t i s t h e f o u n d a tio n upon w hich t h e p r e s e n t r e s t s , and c o n te m p o ra ry s o c i e t y m ust b u i l d f o r t h e f u t u r e . Lack o f I n f o rm a tio n P e o p le f a l l p r e y t o s u p e r s t i t i o n and m is c o n c e p t i o n s , n o t b e c a u se th e y l a c k i n t e l l i g e n c e , b u t b e c a u se | th e y r e f u s e t o se e k o u t t h e a v a i l a b l e i n f o r m a t i o n . The l e s s k no w ledg e, t h e g r e a t e r c h an c e o f e x p l a i n i n g t h i n g s i in an i l l o g i c a l way. To be c r e d u lo u s i s t o f a l l p re y t o s u p e r s t i t i o n s . ! " ' 46 I j Lack o f in fo r m a tio n c a u s in g m is c o n c e p tio n s can ^lead t o d r e a d fu l r e s u l t s a s e v id e n c e d d u rin g World War I I when H i t l e r c o n v in c e d many German p e o p le t h a t th e y w ere o f i a s u p e r io r r a c e . Through ig n o r a n c e , on t h e p a r t o f t h e s e p e o p le , o v er f i v e m i l l i o n Jews w ere m assacred and th e s o c i a l s t r u c t u r e o f a on ce p o w erfu l Germany was u p s e t . Lack o f in fo r m a tio n s e r v e s a l s o t o c o n fu s e p e o p le d u rin g e l e c t i o n y e a r s . Major i s s u e s a r e masked w ith a b a rra g e o f sla n d e r o u s a t t a c k s from b o th s i d e s . In th e ru sh t o e l e c t p o l i t i c a n s , p o l i t i c a l i s s u e s a r e s i d e tr a c k e d land p e r s o n a l i t i e s a r e ju d g ed in s t e a d o f f a c t u a l in fo r m a tio n A c a n d id a te can l o s e in some in s t a n c e s b e c a u se o f h i s i i s m ile or by th e new spaper p la y in g up an i r r e v a l e n t ch an ce rem ark. Lack o f in fo r m a tio n i n f l u e n c e s i n d iv i d u a l s t o consume p r o d u cts w h ich have no v a lu e tow ard t h e i r w e l l b e in g . Food fa d s and d i e t form u las can som etim es be d a n g er o u s. I f p e o p le w ould ta k e th e tim e t o a n a ly z e a d v e r t i s in g c la i m s , t h e i r money and h e a lt h w ould sta n d a b e t t e r ch an ce o f s u r v iv in g . CHAPTER IV ORIGINS OF SUPERSTITIONS AND MISCONCEPTIONS ; Each un fo u n d ed b e l i e f h e a rd o r u t t e r e d h a s an o r i g i n . I t i s im p o s s ib le t o t r a c k down t h e s p e c i f i c s o u r c e ! o f many o f t h e s e b e l i e f s . Many came from t h e a n c i e n t tim e s (while o t h e r s have a more r e c e n t h i s t o r y . Some i n v e s t i g a t o r s h a v e a rg u e d t h a t s u p e r s t i t i o n s and c u sto m s , no m a t t e r how r e c e n t , can be t r a c e d t o t h e s a v a g e s . . . . t h e r e i s h a r d l y a form o f modern s u p e r s t i t i o n , t h e r e i s h a r d l y a custom s a n c t i o n e d by t h e u n w r i t t e n t r a d i t i o n o f t h e p e o p le , b u t w hat can be c l o s e l y d u p l i c a t e d among t h e custom s I and b e l i e f s o f t h e . . . s a v a g e . (6 :2 7 2 ) i | T h is c h a p t e r h a s a tt e m p t e d t o c o m p ile t h e s o u r c e s \ o f f i f t e e n o f t h e m ost p o p u la r s u p e r s t i t i o n s and m isc o n - i jc e p tio n s w hich w ere known o r b e l i e v e d in by t h e p u p i l s ichosen f o r t h i s s t u d y . E a tin g g a r l i c . - - G a r l i c h as been u s e d f o r m e d i c i n a l I j jpurposes from t h e e a r l i e s t t im e s . I t i s now known t h a t •g a rlic h a s g r e a t n u t r i t i o n a l v a lu e and t h a t t h e v a p o r from i t Icrushed g a r l i c w i l l k i l l b a c t e r i a . S u r p r i s i n g l y enough, 47 h ow ever, t h e b a c t e r i a - k i l l i n g a g e n t i s n o t t h e s u b s ta n c e i t h a t g i v e s i t i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c o d o r. The s t r o n g odor comes from t h e o i l in t h e p l a n t and h a s no e f f e c t on i i b a c t e r i a . In e a r l y t i m e s , how ever, i t s s t r o n g o d o r was | I b e l i e v e d t o be a c u r a t i v e a g e n t a g a i n s t a l l k in d s o f | d i s e a s e s . Those who a t e g a r l i c w ere su p p o sed t o be p r o t e c t e d a g a i n s t t h e !lE v i l Eye” and v a m p irism . I t s m a g ic a l t q u a l i t i e s w ere b e l i e v e d s t r o n g enough t o d e s t r o y t h e m a g n e tic powers o f t h e l o d e s to n e . I t i s t h e custo m w h e re v e r g a r l i c i s c u l t i v a t e d t o !hang a w r e a th o f i t o v e r t h e d o o r t o d r i v e e v i l away from i t h e home ( 7 :1 5 8 ) . S p i l l i n g s a l t . —A n o th e r s u p e r s t i t i o n w hich i s s t i l l v e ry p o p u la r has t o do w i t h t h e s p i l l i n g o f s a l t . S a l t h a s been u se d by m ankind th r o u g h o u t r e c o r d e d c i v i l i z a t i o n . I t h a s been u se d t o se aso n fo o d , a s a p r e s e r v a t i v e and a n t i s e p t i c , a s a medium o f e x ch a n g e, and f o r r e l i g i o u s c e re m o n ie s . In many a r e a s i t was m ost d i f f i c u l t t o o b t a i n | s a l t , and m a g ic a l q u a l i t i e s came t o be a s c r i b e d t o i t . ( , i iB ecau se s a l t was so s c a r c e , t o s p i l l i t came t o be r e g a r d e d j I ! I a s r e p r e s e n t i n g bad lu c k ( 5 2 :1 3 ) . In A ra b ic c o u n t r i e s when two p e o p le e a t s a l t , 49 , t o g e t h e r , a bond o f f r i e n d s h i p i s e s t a b l i s h e d . I t i s i a s s o c i a t e d w i t h f r i e n d s h i p b e c a u s e o f i t s l a s t i n g q u a l i t y . The s p i l l i n g o f s a l t d e s t r o y s t h i s f r i e n d s h i p u n l e s s th e y : im m e d ia te ly th ro w a p o r t i o n o f s a l t i n t o t h e fla m e s . In t h e O r i e n t , s a l t i s g iv e n t o g u e s t s a s a to k e n o f h o s p i - 1 t a l i t y . I t i s b e l i e v e d t o be r e v e r e d by t h e gods and, t h e r e f o r e , i f i t i s s p i l l e d , t h e gods w i l l become a n g ry . A n o th e r s u g g e s te d o r i g i n had t o do w i t h L e o n a rd o f s p i c t u r e o f t h e L a s t S u p p e r , w hich d e p i c t s Ju d a s in t h e i a c t o f o v e r t u r n i n g t h e s a l t ( 2 : 2 6 ) . i i i L a d y b i r d . - - T h i s i s one o f t h e few i n s e c t s w hich m ost p e o p le r e f u s e t o k i l l . The o r i g i n o f t h i s s u p e r s t i t i o n i s d e r i v e d from t h e b e l i e f t h a t t h i s i n s e c t r e p r e s e n t s t h e V irg in Mary, h e n ce i t s name la d y - - O u r Lady ( 8 :1 6 0 ) . W ish b o n e. - - T h i s i s a v e ry o ld s u p e r s t i t i o n . In a n c i e n t b i r d - l o r e , t h e hen and t h e co ck w ere a s s o c i a t e d w i t h d i v i n a t i o n . S in c e t h e co ck announced t h e a p p ro a c h in g d ay , and t h e hen announced t h e l a y i n g o f an egg, t h e s e fo w ls came t o be lo o k ed upon a s c a p a b le o f r e v e a l i n g t o l I men a n sw e rs t o t h e i r p ro b lem s a s i n t e r p r e t e d by t h e | d i v i n e r s and p r o g n o s t i c a t o r s o f t h e day. I 50 The "hen o r a c l e " was t h e medium by w hich a god was c a l l e d upon t o r e v e a l h id d e n in f o r m a tio n and s o l v e im por- I | t a n t p ro b le m s. The s a c r e d hen was k i l l e d and t h e f o w l ’ s i i i I j c o l l a r b o n e was u se d by t h e p e rs o n s s e e k in g an answ er from j i . i : t h e god; he made a w is h on i t , and w hoever h e l d t h e l a r g e s t 1 p i e c e o f t h e brok en c o l l a r b o n e r e c e i v e d h i s w is h ; h e n c e , , i t h e name "w ish b o n e" ( 7 :2 8 7 ) . , i Broom s. - - I n t h e o ld w o rld , w itc h e s and brooms w ere c l o s e l y r e l a t e d , t h e l a t t e r b e in g t h e w i t c h e s mode o f ; t r a n s p o r t a t i o n . A broom was f e l t t o be c a p a b le o f w o rk in g ! o r p r e v e n t i n g a m a g ic a l s p e l l . Jo c k e y s a r e v e ry s u p e r s t i t i o u s c o n c e rn in g broom s. They r e f u s e t o to u c h them , b e l i e v i n g bad lu c k w i l l f o llo w . The s t a b l e sw eep ers c a n n o t g e t n e a r many o f t h e jo c k e y s . T his s u p e r s t i t i o n came from t h e b e l i e f t h a t w i t c h e s w ere b r o o m - r id e r s w hich s y m b o l i c a l l y s u g g e s te d t h a t th e y w ere c o m p e ti t o r s o f t h e r i d e r s ( 7 :2 9 1 ) . \ I t R a b b i t 1s f o o t . - -One o f t h e o r i g i n s o f t h i s s u p e r s t i t i o n i s t h e b e l i e f t h a t young r a b b i t s a r e b o rn w i t h I ' I • t h e i r eyes open and th u s h a v e t h e power o f t h e E v il Eye i i i ; i ( and can s c a r e away e v i l e n t i t i e s . A n o th e r b e l i e f i s t h a t j s i n c e r a b b i t s a r e e x tr e m e ly p r o l i f i c , th e y w ere th o u g h t ■ ; - - - 51 "j t o p o s s e s s a c r e a t i v e power s u p e r i o r t o o t h e r a n im a ls . ! ‘The r a b b i t th e n became a s s o c i a t e d w i t h p r o s p e r i t y and s u c c e s s ( 8 : 1 9 5 ) . Number t h i r t e e n . --T h e o r i g i n o f t h i s s u p e r s t i t i o n iis su p p o sed t o have e v o lv e d from t h e L a s t S u p p e r . T h is , how ever, does n o t e x p la in t h e G reek s and t h e Romans d i s l i k e f o r t h e number t h i r t e e n . I t i s s u g g e s te d t h a t i t comes from t h e s t o r y o f t h e V a l h a l l a b a n q u e t in G reek m y th o lo g y . In t h i s myth tw e lv e gods w ere i n v i t e d . L o c h i, t h e s p i r i t o f M is c h ie f and S t r i f e , i n t r u d e d m aking t h e number p r e s e n t t h i r t e e n . W hile a t t h i s b a n q u e t, L o ch i was r e s p o n s i b l e f o r \ ;the d e a t h o f B a ld e r , who was t h e f a v o r i t e son o f t h e gods ( 8 :2 3 6 ) . i L ig h t i n g t h r e e c i g a r e t t e s on one m a tc h .- - V a r i o u s jo r ig in s h a v e been a s c r i b e d t o t h i s s u p e r s t i t i o n . The m ost [popular i s t h a t i t o r i g i n a t e d d u r in g t h e Boer War. A ppar- e n t l y , t h e tim e s p e n t in l i g h t i n g t h r e e c i g a r e t t e s from jone m atch was enough f o r t h e Boer s h a r p s h o o t e r s t o s p o t ^ jthe l i g h t , t a k e aim , and f i r e , w i t h p o s s i b l e d e a t h f o r | one o f t h e t h r e e . i A n o th e r p o s s i b l e o r i g i n comes from t h e B r i t i s h .tro o p s d u r i n g t h e Crimean War. From t h e i r R u ss ia n c a p t i v e s t h e B r i t i s h l e a r n e d t h a t i t was a s a c r e d r u l e in R u ss ia n i c h u rc h e s t h a t o n ly t h e High P r i e s t c o u ld l i g h t t h r e e : c a n d le s from one t a p e r . F o r someone e l s e t o do t h i s w ould c a u s e m i s f o r t u n e ( 8 :2 3 8 ) . | I i Knocking on w ood. - - T h i s p r a c t i c e d a t e s b ack t o i l t h e tim e when p r i m i t i v e p e o p le w ere l i v i n g in wooden d w e l l i n g s . At t h a t tim e i t was assum ed t h a t t h e w o rld was f u l l o f e v i l s p i r i t s who w ere j e a l o u s o f human h a p p in e s s . |F o r t h i s re a s o n a p e rs o n had t o be v e ry c a r e f u l when he i i m e n tio n e d good f o r t u n e w hich happened t o him . Whenever he made a b o a s t f u l s t a t e m e n t , he knocked on wood a t t h e same tim e t h e b o a s t was made t o p r e v e n t t h e demons from h e a r i n g w hat he had s a i d . L a t e r , p e o p le f o r g o t t h e o r i g i n a l p r a c t i c e and knocked on wood a f t e r t h e b o a s t had been u t t e r e d ( 5 2 : 6 ) . \ B lac k c a t . - - B l a c k c a t s came i n t o d i s r e s p e c t probably I d u r in g t h e M iddle Ages when th e y w ere r e g a r d e d a s t h e com p a n io n s o f w i t c h e s . T hese w i t c h e s , o r e v i l s p i r i t s , w ere som etim es th o u g h t t o assum e t h e form o f a b l a c k c a t , and i ! I I t h e r e f o r e t h e b l a c k c a t i t s e l f was su p p o sed t o r e p r e s e n t ' i e v i l o r bad lu c k . The id e a th e n e v o lv e d t h a t a b l a c k c a t c r o s s i n g a p e r s o n ’s p a th was a s ig n o f bad lu c k ( 2 :5 1 - 5 2 ) . I 53 H o r s e s h o e . - -The h o r s e s h o e s i g n i f i e s good lu c k . P e o p le have k e p t them in t h e i r homes t o b r i n g p r o s p e r i t y t o t h e e n t i r e h o u s e h o ld . O th e rs p l a c e t h e h o r s e s h o e o v e r i t h e o u t e r do or t o p r e v e n t m i s f o r t u n e from e n t e r i n g t h e | ■ I h o u s e . The h o r s e s h o e i s u s u a l l y n a i l e d so t h a t t h e opened j : end i s p o i n t i n g upw ard. I f t h e open end p o i n t s downward, | i t h e m a g ic a l powers w i l l e s c a p e and i t w i l l c e a s e t o be a lu c k y p i e c e . i One o r i g i n h a s i t t h a t t h e h o r s e s h o e b r i n g s good » , lu c k b e c a u s e i t re s e m b le s t h e c r e s c e n t moon. The c r e s c e n t form h a s from t h e e a r l i e s t tim e been a s s o c i a t e d w i t h good i f o r t u n e . Ornam ents w i t h t h i s sh a p e have alw ay s been p o p u l a r and c o n s i d e r e d t o be an e f f e c t i v e d e v ic e a g a i n s t ' bad f o r t u n e and e v i l s p i r i t s . C e l e s t i a l b o d ie s w ere once r e g a r d e d a s e i t h e r gods o r r e p r e s e n t i n g gods and t h u s w ere w o rs h ip p e d by t h e p r i m i t i v e p e o p le . The moon was e s p e c i a l l y im p o r ta n t in t h i s r e s p e c t . Thus, t h i s s i m i l a r i t y betw een t h e h o r s e s h o e and t h e h a l f moon f o r b r i n g i n g good lu c k i s a p p a r e n t . ! i A lso among some o f t h e e a r l i e r p e o p le , i r o n was ■ reg ard ed a s a p r o t e c t i v e a g a i n s t e v i l s p i r i t s . F o r t h i s i i r e a s o n , an i r o n shoe was u s e d t o p r o t e c t t h e f e e t o f t h e i 1 h o r s e . The h o r s e i t s e l f was c o n s i d e r e d a s a c r e d a n im a l. ■ Thus, t h e h o r s e s h o e c o n s i s t e d o f t h r e e lu c k y e le m e n ts : i t s c r e s c e n t s h a p e , t h e i r o n o f w hich i t i s made, and i i i t s a s s o c i a t i o n w ith t h e h o r s e ( 2 : 4 5 - 4 9 ) . i ! Toads and W a r t s .- - T h e b e l i e f t h a t t o a d s c a u s e w a r ts i s one o f t h e m ost p r e v a l e n t s u p e r s t i t i o n s . One p o s s i b l e o r i g i n a s s o c i a t i n g to a d s w i t h w a r ts i s t h e w a r t l i k e a p p e a ra n c e o f t h e t o a d ’s s k i n . S in c e t h i s s u p e r s t i t i o n i s v e ry o l d , i t may be b a se d on t h e p r i m i t i v e t h e o r y t h a t ’’l i k e p ro d u c e s l i k e . ” A n o th e r p o s s i b l e e x p la n a t i o n comes from r u r a l a r e a s . S in c e to a d s a r e t h e i n h a b i t a n t s i 1 o f swamp r e g i o n s p a r e n t s o f t e n w arned t h e i r c h i l d r e n a g a i n s t p l a y i n g t h e r e by f a b r i c a t i n g t a l e s o f m is f o r t u n e su ch a s t o a d s c a u s in g w a r ts on t h e p e rs o n h a n d lin g them . T h ere a r e many c u r e s f o r w a r t s , a l l o f w hich i n v o lv e b u ry in g so m e th in g o r r e c i t i n g some ’’c h a rm .” One o f th o s e m ethods t o e l i m i n a t e w a r ts was t o ru b a p i e c e o f s t o l e n m eat o r a bean on each w a rt and th e n b u ry t h e o b j e c t u s e d f o r t h i s p u rp o se ( 7 :1 9 7 ) . j M ir r o r b r e a k i n g . - - T h i s i s p o s s i b l y one o f t h e m ost I w id e s p r e a d s u p e r s t i t i o n s h e l d to d a y . The o r i g i n o f t h i s b e l i e f i s d e r i v e d from m an’ s b e l i e f in e a r l i e r tim e t h a t t h e s o u l som etim es t e m p o r a r i l y to o k l e a v e o f t h e body. T h is was e x p re s s e d by t h e p r i m i t i v e m a n 's i n s i s t e n c e t h a t h i s r e f l e c t i o n in a m i r r o r was h i s s o u l . The b r e a k in g o f a m i r r o r would r e s u l t in t h e l o s s o f h i s s o u l . The C h in e se hang b r a s s m i r r o r s o v e r t h e i r i d o l s i I in t h e b e l i e f t h a t i f an e v i l s p i r i t e n t e r s t h e h o u s e , i upon s e e i n g th e m s e lv e s in t h e m i r r o r th e y w i l l become I f r i g h t e n e d and l e a v e . I f t h e m i r r o r w ere b ro k e n , t h e !s p i r i t , n o t s e e in g h i s s o u l , w ould f e e l f r e e t o roam t h e h o u se a t w i l l ( 8 :1 7 4 ) . L a d d e r . - - P o s s i b l y t h e o r i g i n a l r e a s o n f o r t h i s s u p e r s t i t i o n d e a l t w i t h t h e b lo o d ta b o o . Women w ere p l a c e d junder m e n s tr u a l ta b o o and c o u ld n o t be a p p ro a c h e d by any man. Even h e r shadow was p o l l u t i n g . W hatever sh e to u c h e d I |was im m e d ia te ly d e s t r o y e d . Many p r i m i t i v e s r e f u s e d t o i p a s s u n d e r o v e rh a n g in g boughs f o r f e a r a woman m ig h t hav e c lim b e d t h e t r e e and s a t o v e rh e a d . T h is s i m i l a r i d e a o f •something f a l l i n g from above may u n d e r l i e t h e s u p e r s t i t i o n I ja g a in s t w a lk in g u n d e r a l a d d e r ( 7 :2 9 1 ) . Some o f t h e a n c i e n t A s i a t i c c o u n t r i e s p u n is h e d j th e i r c r i m i n a l s by h a n g in g them upon t h e s e v e n th s t e p o f a l a d d e r , w hich was prop p ed up a g a i n s t a t r e e . I t was [ f o r b id d e n t o w alk u n d e r t h e l a d d e r , even a f t e r t h e body j was rem oved, b e c a u s e an i n d i v i d u a l m ig h t come i n t o c o n t a c t | w i t h t h e g h o s t o f t h e c r i m i n a l . i | A l a d d e r l e a n in g a g a i n s t a n y th in g form s a t r i a n g l e . And a t r i a n g l e h a s alw ays been a symbol o f t h e T r i n i t y . W alking u n d e r t h e l a d d e r would show d i s r e s p e c t f o r t h i s emblem and w ould be a s a c r i l e g i o u s a c t . A n o th e r e x p la n a t i o n o f t h e l a d d e r ta b o o was d e r i v e d from e a r l y p i c t u r e s o f t h e C r u c i f i x i o n d e p i c t i n g ! a l a d d e r l e a n i n g a g a i n s t t h e C ro s s . S a tan was supposed t o be u n d e r t h e l a d d e r a n g e re d b e c a u s e he had been c h e a te d by C h r i s t who had d ie d t o sa v e h u m a n ity . Thus u n d e r t h e l a d d e r was no p l a c e t o w alk i f a p e rs o n d id n o t w ish t o come i n t o c o n t a c t w ith S a tan (8 :1 5 9 - 1 6 0 ) . F o u r - l e a f c l o v e r .--N o one seems t o know why t h e f o u r - l e a f c l o v e r sh o u ld be c o n s i d e r e d l u c k i e r th a n any o t h e r g re e n p l a n t . One r e a s o n g iv e n f o r t h e good lu c k a t t a c h e d t o t h e f i n d i n g o r p o s s e s s i n g o f a f o u r - l e a f c l o v e r i s t h a t i t i s r a r e l y found com pared t o t h e norm al t h r e e - lo b e d l e a f o f t h e p l a n t . B ecause o f i t s r a r i t y , i t i s o f t e n c o n s i d e r e d a s p e c i a l p r i z e when l o c a t e d . H i s t o r y r e c o r d s many s t o r i e s and le g e n d s o f th e b e n ig n powers o f t h i s l e a f . One o f t h e m ost p o p u la r le g e n d s i s t h a t Eve c a r r i e d a f o u r - l e a f c l o v e r w i t h h e r upon b e in g e j e c t e d from t h e Garden o f Eden. S in c e t h i s s p e c i e s o f c l o v e r o r i g i n a l l y came from P a r a d i s e , i t s p r e s e n c e in o n e ’ s own g a rd e n was t h e r e f o r e c o n s i d e r e d a s ig n o f good lu c k ( 7 :3 0 4 - 3 0 5 ). CHAPTER V THE PROCEDURE G e n e ra l In f o r m a tio n The s c h o o l w here t h i s s tu d y was made i s l o c a t e d in an i n d u s t r i a l a r e a in Los A n g e le s , C a l i f o r n i a . The t o t a l e n r o llm e n t was 1 ,3 2 1 p u p i l s , w ith a g r a d u a t in g c l a s s o f a p p r o x im a te ly 250 p u p i l s . T h is s c h o o l h a s a t r a n s i e n c y r a t e o f a b o u t 50 p e r c e n t each y e a r . The s t u - id e n ts come from f a m i l i e s o f a low so c io ec o n o m ic l e v e l . I jMany o f t h e s e f a m i l i e s a r e f o r c e d t o s e e k h e l p from w e l f a r e a g e n c i e s . The l a r g e s t r a c i a l g ro u p i s N e g ro id , b e in g a p p r o x im a te ly 62 p e r c e n t o f t h e s c h o o l p o p u l a t i o n . The o t h e r s a r e as f o l lo w s : M exican, 17 p e r c e n t ; W h ite, 13 p e r c e n t ; O r i e n t a l , 8 p e r c e n t . S u p e r s t i t i o n and M isc o n c e p tio n Q u e s t i o n n a i r e T his p r o c e d u re c o n s i s t e d of o b t a i n i n g s u p e r s t i t i o n s and m is c o n c e p t i o n s , w hich w ere known by t h e p u p i l s in t h i s s c h o o l. A m im eographed q u e s t i o n n a i r e was p a s s e d o u t to 148 e i g h t h g ra d e p u p i l s , whose a g es ra n g e d from 13 t o 15 58 59 y e a r s . The m im eographed s h e e t was d iv id e d i n t o t h r e e m ajo r p a r t s . P a r t I a sk e d t h e p a r t i c i p a t i n g p u p i l s t o l i s t t h r e e f a l s e b e l i e f s w hich th e y h ad h e a r d . Two exam ples w ere g iv e n . They w ere: (1) " I t i s u n lu c k y f o r a b l a c k c a t t o c r o s s y o u r p a t h , " and (2) " F i s h and m ilk e a t e n t o g e t h e r w i l l make you s i c k . " P a r t I I a sk e d t h e p u p i l s i f th e y had e v e r h e a r d o f th e above exam ples o f s u p e r s t i t i o n s b e f o r e t h i s tim e . They w ere t o i n d i c a t e t h e i r answ er by p u t t i n g "X" in th e sp a c e f o r Yes o r in th e s p a c e f o r No. In P a r t I I I t h e s t u d e n t s w ere a sk e d t o m ark in t h e a p p r o p r i a t e s p a c e w h e th e r th e y b e l i e v e d t h a t t h e s e s u p e r s t i t i o n s may be t r u e . P a r t IV a sk e d t h e s t u d e n t s w h e th e r a t one tim e t h e exam ples w ere b e l i e v e d t o be t r u e . P a r t V a sk e d th e p u p i l s t o l i s t bn t h e b a ck o f th e s h e e t any a d d i t i o n a l s u p e r s t i t i o n s t h a t th e y can t h i n k o f . T h is q u e s t i o n n a i r e was g iv e n f o u r weeks a f t e r th e c l a s s i n s t r u c t i o n had b eg u n . I t to o k t h e s t u d e n t s a p p ro x i m a te ly 15 m in u te s t o c o m p le te t h e d a t a . S u p e r s t i t i o n and M isc o n c e p tio n T e s t The p ro c e d u r e c o n s i s t e d o f g i v i n g t o 86 e i g h t h K I , g ra d e l i f e s c i e n c e s t u d e n t s a t e s t w hich had t h e 60 m ost ! I p r e v a l e n t m e n tio n e d s u p e r s t i t i o n s and m is c o n c e p tio n s i in c lu d e d in t h e l i s t made by t h e 148 p u p i l s p r e v i o u s l y m e n tio n e d . In some c a s e s t h e w o rd in g was changed t o o b t a i n c o r r e c t s e n t e n c e s t r u c t u r e . T h is d i d n o t a l t e r t h e i r m ean ing. T here w ere 39 boys and 47 g i r l s ; t h e i r i a g e s ra n g e d from 13 t o 15 y e a r s . T h ere w ere 71 N e g ro es, 8 M e x ic a n s, 2 O r i e n t a l s and 5 W h i t e s . The t e s t was 1 e n t i t l e d ^Common B e l i e f s . " The t e a c h e r a d m i n i s t e r i n g t h e t e s t was a sk e d n o t t o m en tio n t h e w ords s u p e r s t i t i o n , m is c o n c e p tio n o r any o t h e r word o r g ro u p o f w ords w hich m ig ht b i a s t h e p u p i l s t a k i n g t h e t e s t . I t was a l s o a d v is e d t h a t a c l o s e w atch be k e p t on t h e c h i l d r e n t o p r e v e n t c o p y in g . As a n o t h e r p r o t e c t i v e m easu re a g a i n s t c o p y in g , h a l f o f t h e 86 t e s t ite m s had t h e t h r e e pages s t a p l e d in a r e v e r s e o r d e r so t h a t no two p u p i l s s e a t e d s i d e by s i d e w ould hav e t h e same ite m s on t h e i r f i r s t I | p a g e . | I f a s t u d e n t b e l i e v e d an ite m on t h e t e s t t o be t r u e , he was d i r e c t e d t o c i r c l e t h e l e t t e r nT . n I f he b e l i e v e d t h e s t a te m e n t t o be f a l s e , he c i r c l e d t h e l e t t e r n " ■ ■ ........ "■ ■ ■ 6i > ! ( ," F ." I f he th o u g h t t h e s ta te m e n t t o be p a r t i a l l y t r u e , I > ihe c i r c l e d t h e l e t t e r " P ." The s t a t e m e n t s c i r c l e d "P" w ere c o n s i d e r e d t o be a v e ry s t r o n g i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e m ark er b e l i e v e d t h e s t a t e m e n t s t o be t r u e . D r e s s l a r i s t a t e s t h e f o l lo w in g : 1 And i t i s w o r th - w h ile t o say h e r e t h a t ! t h r e e c l a s s e s o f b e l i e f w ere ch o sen i n s t e a d o f 1 two f o r t h e sa k e o f h e l p i n g them t o t e l l t h e t r u t h . P a r t i a l b e l i e f means t h a t "one would | r a t h e r be on t h e r i g h t s i d e / 1 t h a t t h e r e was i a " f e e l i n g o f b e l i e f , " b u t i t w ould be d i f - ; f i c u l t t o d e c id e a s t o i t s e x a c t s t r e n g t h . I t m ust be b o rn e in m ind, hpw ever, t h a t " p a r t i a l b e l i e f " i s b e l i e f . I t i s an i n d e f i n i t e and c o n d i t i o n a l b e l i e f t o be s u r e , b u t i t may be a s p e r s i s t e n t and a s th o r o u g h ly s u p e r s t i t i o u s a s " f u l l b e l i e f . " (4 8 :3 ) W ith in t h i s s tu d y t h e te rm " p e r f e c t s c o r e " r e f e r s 1 jto t h o s e t e s t r e s u l t s w h ich i n d i c a t e no b e l i e f in any o f ith e 60 ite m s l i s t e d . A n e g a t i v e r e s p o n s e i s one w hich i n d i c a t e s d i s b e l i e f in a s p e c i f i c ite m . ! j T h is t e s t was g iv e n t h r e e weeks a f t e r t h e f i r s t ( q u e s t i o n n a i r e was a d m i n i s t e r e d . I t to o k a b o u t tw e n ty jm in u tes o f c l a s s tim e . F in d in g s o f t h i s s tu d y w i l l be p r e s e n t e d in t h e f o l lo w in g c h a p t e r . CHAPTER VI j FINDINGS | i i S u p e r s t i t i o n and M isc o n c e p tio n Q u e s t i o n n a i r e j T h is p ro c e d u re c o n s i s t e d o f a f i v e - p a r t q u e s t i o n n a i r e w hich was s u b m itte d t o 148 e i g h t h g ra d e l i f e s c i e n c e s t u d e n t s s e l e c t e d f o r t h i s s t u d y . The p u rp o se o f t h i s I p a r t o f t h e s t u d y , a s p r e v i o u s l y s t a t e d , was t o o b t a i n th e m ost p r e v a l e n t u nfou nded b e l i e f s f a m i l i a r among t h e s e p u p i l s . The r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d c o u ld th e n be u se d t o e s t a b l i s h a u n i t t o combat t h e s e e rro n e o u s b e l i e f s . The f i r s t p a r t o f t h e i n s t r u c t i o n s a sk e d t h e s t u - ! d e n ts t o l i s t a t , l e a s t t h r e e f a l s e b e l i e f s . The 148 p u p i l s w ere a b l e t o w r i t e a t o t a l o f 585 f a l s e b e l i e f s f o r an a v e ra g e o f 4 .0 2 p e r p u p i l . T h is t o t a l in c lu d e d 122 d i f - 1 f e r e n t f a l s e b e l i e f s . T ab le I l i s t s t h e number o f j i i u n fou nded b e l i e f s w r i t t e n by each o f t h e s t u d e n t s . I t ! was fou nd t h a t 58 p u p i l s o r 3 9 .2 p e r c e n t w ere a b l e t o l i s t t h r e e b e l i e f s . F our b e l i e f s w ere w r i t t e n by 25 p u p i l s | o r 1 6 .9 p e r c e n t . Two p u p i l s w ro te f o u r t e e n b e l i e f s w hich I i Iwas t h e g r e a t e s t number t o be r e c a l l e d . T here w ere 5 j 63 TABLE 1 THE NUMBER OF UNFOUNDED BELIEFS WRITTEN BY EACH PUPIL Number o f p u p i l s Number o f F a l s e w r i t i n g f a l s e b e l i e f s w r i t t e n b e l i e f s 5 0 6 1 15 2 58 3 25 4 10 5 10 6 3 7 8 8 3 9 1 10 1 11 2 12 1 13 2 14 f " • - 64 ! < 'p u p i l s o r 3 .3 p e r c e n t who d id n o t l i s t any b e l i e f s . I I Of t h e 122 d i f f e r e n t u n fo u n d ed b e l i e f s l i s t e d , t h e 20 m ost p r e v a l e n t a r e l i s t e d on T a b le 2. ”You w i l l i 1 r e c e i v e bad lu c k i f you w alk u n d e r a l a d d e r ” was th e b e l i e f m ost f r e q u e n t l y m e n tio n e d . I t was r e c a l l e d by 59 i n d i v i d u a l s o r by a p p r o x im a te ly 40 p e r c e n t o f t h e 148 p u p i l s . F i f t y - f i v e p u p i l s o r 3 7 .1 p e r c e n t r e c a l l e d th e b e l i e f a b o u t r e c e i v i n g seven y e a r s bad lu c k by b r e a k in g a m i r r o r . T h i r t y - s i x p u p i l s o r 2 3 .5 p e r c e n t named t h e s i m i l a r b e l i e f , 1 1 I t i s bad lu c k t o b r e a k a m i r r o r . ” Tw enty-tw o p e r c e n t o r 32 p u p i l s w ro te t h e b e l i e f t h a t , ” l t i s bad lu c k t o open an u m b r e lla in t h e h o u s e . ” S i x t y - e i g h t o f t h e 122 d i f f e r e n t s u p e r s t i t i o n s and m is c o n c e p tio n s i w ere m en tio n e d o n ly o nce. The seco n d p a r t o f t h i s p r o c e d u r e a sk e d t h e p u p i l s i f th e y had e v e r h e a r d o f t h e exam ples g iv e n on t h e m im eographed q u e s t i o n n a i r e . The f i r s t exam ple s t a t e d , ” I t i s u n lu c k y f o r a b l a c k c a t t o c r o s s y o u r p a t h . ” One h u n d red and t h i r t y - o n e o r 8 8 .5 p e r c e n t o f t h e s t u d e n t s marked t h i s s t a te m e n t ”Y e s .” Twelve i n d i v i d u a l s o r 8 .1 p e r c e n t an sw ered n e g a t i v e l y and 5 p e o p le o r 3 .3 p e r c e n t f a i l e d t o re s p o n d . The seco n d exam ple s t a t e d , ”F i s h and m ilk e a te n 65 TABLE 2 UNFOUNDED BELIEFS WRITTEN FIVE TIMES OR MORE F a l s e b e l i e f s Number o f tim e s r e c a l l e d You w i l l r e c e i v e bad lu c k i f you w alk u n d e r a l a d d e r . 59 I f you b r e a k a m i r r o r , you w i l l have seven y e a r s bad lu c k . 55 I t i s bad lu c k t o b r e a k a m i r r o r . 36 I t i s bad lu c k t o open an u m b r e lla in t h e h o u s e . 32 F r i d a y , t h e t h i r t e e n t h , i s an u n lu c k y day. 28 You w i l l have good lu c k i f you c a r r y a r a b b i t * s f o o t . 19 I f you f i n d a f o u r l e a f c l o v e r , i t w i l l b r i n g you good lu c k . 15 I t i s good lu c k t o throw s a l t o v e r y o u r l e f t s h o u l d e r . 13 Toads c a u s e w a r t s . 11 A c a t h a s n i n e l i v e s . 9 I t i s u n lu c k y f o r t h i r t e e n p e o p le t o s i t down t o d i n n e r . 9 1 1 66 i TABLE 2 ( c o n tin u e d ) F a l s e b e l i e f s Number o f tim e s r e c a l l e d E a tin g w aterm elo n and d r i n k i n g soda pop w i l l make you s i c k . 8 I t i s good lu c k t o th ro w a h o r s e s h o e o v e r y o u r l e f t s h o u l d e r . 6 P i c k l e s and m ilk w i l l make you s i c k . 6 A h o r e s e s h o e b r i n g s good lu c k . 6 The grou nd hog i s a f r a i d o f h i s own shadow. 5 I t i s bad lu c k f o r t h e groom t o s e e th e b r i d e b e f o r e t h e w e d d in g . ‘ 5 Hang a h o r s e s h o e o v e r y o u r d o o r up sid e-d o w n f o r good lu c k . 5 I f you g i v e a f r i e n d a k n i f e o r a p a i r o f s c i s s o r s , you s e v e r h i s f r i e n d s h i p . 5 , t o g e t h e r w i l l make you s i c k . ” One h u n d red and tw e n ty - e i g h t p e o p le o r 8 6 .4 p e r c e n t o f t h e g ro u p a n sw ered ,fY e s ,M i w h ile 15 i n d i v i d u a l s o r 1 0 .1 p e r c e n t i n d i c a t e d th e y had n o t h e a r d o f t h e exam ple. F iv e p e o p le d i d n o t mark t h i s ite m . These 5 p u p i l s w ere t h e same ones who d id n o t answ er t h e f i r s t exam ple. In P a r t I I I t h e p u p i l s w ere a sk e d i f th e y b e l i e v e d t h e s e exam ples m ig h t be t r u e . T h i r t y - o n e p u p i l s o r 2 0 .0 p e r c e n t s t a t e d th e y b e l i e v e d t h e f i r s t exam ple t o be t r u e . One h u n d re d and tw e lv e o r 7 5 .6 p e r c e n t s a i d i t h e exam ple was n o t t r u e , and 5 p e o p le o r 3 .3 p e r c e n t f a i l e d t o answ er t h e q u e s t i o n . T h i r t y - t h r e e s t u d e n t s o r 2 2 .2 p e r c e n t s t a t e d th e y b e l i e v e d in t h e se co n d exam ple, w h ile 110 s t u d e n t s o r 7 4 .3 p e r c e n t gave a n e g a t i v e r e s p o n s e . The s t a t i s t i c a l r e s u l t s o f b o th exam ples a r e q u i t e c l o s e , t h e d i f f e r e n c e b e in g a p p r o x im a te ly 2 p e r c e n t . P a r t IV a sk e d t h e q u e s t i o n , M Did you a t one tim e b e l i e v e t h e s e exam ples t o be t r u e ? ” Only t h o s e p u p i l s i who s t a t e d p r e v i o u s l y t h a t th e y had h e a r d o f t h e exam ples w ere p o l l e d . E ig h ty - tw o p u p i l s o r 6 2 .5 p e r c e n t s a i d t h a t |t h e y a t one tim e d i d b e l i e v e i t was bad lu c k f o r a b l a c k ; “ ‘ 68 " ] i j c a t t o c r o s s t h e i r p a t h . F o r ty - tw o p u p i l s o r 32 p e r c e n t j i n d i c a t e d th e y had n e v e r b e l i e v e d t h i s s u p e r s t i t i o n and 5 p u p i l s o r 3 .8 p e r c e n t d id n o t answ er t h e q u e s t i o n . F i f t y - f i v e s t u d e n t s o r 4 2 .2 p e r c e n t i n d i c a t e d | j th e y a t one tim e had b e l i e v e d f i s h and m ilk e a te n t o g e t h e r (would make them s i c k . S i x t y - s e v e n i n d i v i d u a l s o r 5 2 .2 p e r c e n t o f t h e g ro u p s t a t e d t h a t th e y had n e v e r b e l i e v e d j t h i s exam ple t o be t r u e . T here was no r e s p o n s e from 4 j i n d i v i d u a l s o r 3 .1 p e r c e n t o f t h e g ro u p . S u p e r s t i t i o n and M isc o n c e p tio n T e s t The 6 0 - ite m s u p e r s t i t i o n and m is c o n c e p tio n t e s t w hich was e n t i t l e d Common B e l i e f s was s u b m itte d t o 86 i e i g h t h g r a d e l i f e s c i e n c e s t u d e n t s . Those i n d i v i d u a l s I ;m ark in g a l a r g e number o f s t a t e m e n t s t r u e w ere c o n s i d e r e d |t o be v e ry c r e d u l o u s . The r e s u l t s o b t a i n e d from t h e p u p i l s t a k i n g t h i s ; t e s t i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e s t u d e n t s a s a g ro u p w ere v e ry s u s c e p t i b l e t o un fo u n d ed b e l i e f s . i i T a b le 3 shows t h e t o t a l number o f t r u e and ( p a r t i a l l y t r u e r e s p o n s e s f o r e a c h o f t h e 60 u nfou nded ( b e l i e f s . Every ite m r e c e i v e d a t l e a s t one t r u e o r * p a r t i a l l y - t r u e r e s p o n s e . Item 49 r e c e i v e d t h e g r e a t e s t 69 TABLE 3 LIST OF THE UNFOUNDED BELIEFS AND THEIR TOTAL NUMBER OF TRUE AND PARTIALLY TRUE RESPONSES i Item ! number T o t a l r e sp o n se P e r c e n t age Item number T o t a l r e sp o n se P e r c e n t age 1 12 13 .9 31 22 2 5 .6 2 43 5 0 .0 32 22 2 5 .6 3 14 1 6 .3 33 15 1 7 .4 4 12 1 3 .9 34 24 2 7 .9 5 32 3 7 .2 35 17 2 4 .4 ; 6 20 2 3 .2 36 23 26.7 7 4 4 .6 37 30 3 4 .9 ! 8 25 2 9 .1 38 38 4 4 .2 9 29 3 3 .7 39 26 3 0 .3 10 29 3 3 .7 40 5 5 .8 11 12 1 3 .9 41 9 1 0 .4 12 13 1 5 .3 42 20 2 3 .3 13 12 1 3 .9 43 27 3 1 .4 14 12 1 3 .9 44 4 4 .6 15 38 4 4 .2 45 14 1 6 .3 16 20 2 3 .3 46 43 5 0 .0 17 23 2 6 .7 47 12 1 3 .9 18 18 2 0 .9 48 19 2 2 .1 19 11 1 2 .8 49 51 5 9 .3 . 20 18 2 0 .9 50 21 2 4 .4 21 17 1 9 .8 51 29 3 3 .7 22 25 2 9 .1 52 4 4 .6 23 16 1 8 .6 53 32 3 7 .2 24 15 1 7 .4 54 33 3 8 .4 25 11 12 .8 55 16 1 8.6 26 14 16 .3 56 26 3 0 .3 27 22 2 5 .6 57 29 33.7 28 17 1 9 .8 58 21 2 4 .4 29 6 6 .9 59 16 1 8 .6 30 13 1 5 .3 60 14 1 6 .3 number o f p o s i t i v e r e s p o n s e s . Item 49 s t a t e d t h a t , " E a tin g ban an a s w i t h w h isk ey w i l l make you s i c k . " F i f t y - n i n e p e r c e n t o f t h e g ro u p o r 51 p u p i l s m arked i t t r u e o r p a r t i a l l y t r u e . The ite m w hich s t a t e d , "Toads c a u s e w a r t s , " r e c e i v e d a p o s i t i v e r e s p o n s e by 50 p e r c e n t o f t h e g ro u p . Item 46 a l s o r e c e i v e d 43 p o s i t i v e r e s p o n s e s o r 50 p e r c e n t . I t s t a t e d t h a t , "A c a t h a s n i n e l i v e s . " F o r t y - f o u r p e r c e n t o r 38 s t u d e n t s m arked ite m 15 a s t r u e . I t r e a d , " P i c k l e s and m ilk w i l l make you s i c k . " " I f you f i n d a f o u r - l e a f c l o v e r , i t w i l l b r i n g you good l u c k , " r e c e i v e d t h e same number o f p o s i t i v e r e s p o n s e s a s t h e p r e c e d in g un fo u n d ed b e l i e f . Item 7, " I t i s u n lu c k y f o r t h i r t e e n p e o p le t o s i t down t o d i n n e r " ; ite m 4 4, " I t i s bad lu c k t o p l a c e a h a t on t h e b e d " ; and ite m 52, " I t i s bad lu c k t o come in t h e f r o n t do or and go o u t t h e back d o o r" ; a l l r e c e i v e d 4 p o s i t i v e r e s p o n s e s , w hich was t h e l e a s t number r e c o r d e d . Item 4 4 , how ever, r e c e i v e d o n ly 4 p a r t i a l l y t r u e r e s p o n s e s . A p p ro x im a te ly 7 p e r c e n t o r 6 p u p i l s m arked ite m 29 t r u e , w hich s t a t e d , " I f y o u r l e f t eye i t c h e s , you w i l l have bad l u c k . " I t i s i n t e r e s t i n g t o n o t e t h a t an a lm o s t i d e n t i c a l ite m , number 30, r e c e i v e d more th a n tw ic e a s many p o s i t i v e r e s p o n s e s . I t s t a t e d , I 7 1 , 1 1 I f y o u r r i g h t eye i t c h e s , you w i l l have good l u c k . 1 ’ T h is s t u d y , a s s t a t e d in C h a p te r V, f o llo w s i D r e s s l a r ’ s r e a s o n i n g t h a t an ite m m arked p a r t i a l l y t r u e i s a s t r o n g i n d i c a t i o n t h a t t h e m ark er b e l i e v e s t h e s t a t e - i ment t o be t r u e . Some i n d i v i d u a l s , how ever, may w ant t o i t a k e i s s u e w ith t h i s a s s u m p tio n . They may c o n s i d e r o n ly !a s t a te m e n t m arked t r u e a s a p o s i t i v e r e s p o n s e . The <un fo u n d ed b e l i e f s and t h e i r t o t a l number o f t r u e r e s p o n s e s ( ; a r e shown in T a b le 4. i The ite m r e c e i v i n g t h e g r e a t e s t number o f t r u e r e s p o n s e s was number 4 9 , w hich was m arked t r u e by 38 p u p i l s . F o llo w in g c l o s e l y was ite m 2 w hich r e c e i v e d 37 p o s i t i v e t r u e r e s p o n s e s . Both o f t h e ite m s a l s o r e c e i v e d t h e l a r g e s t number o f t r u e and p a r t i a l l y t r u e r e s p o n s e s com bined. The o n ly s ta te m e n t n o t r e c e i v i n g any t r u e r e s p o n s e s was ite m 4 4 , 1 1 I t i s bad lu c k t o p l a c e a h a t on t h e b e d . 1 1 The r e s u l t s showed t h a t t h e g i r l s h ad h e a r d a g r e a t e r number o f un fo u n d ed b e l i e f s th a n d i d t h e b o y s. The a v e r a g e number o f b e l i e f s m arked t r u e and p a r t i a l l y I ‘ t r u e by t h e g i r l s was 1 8.82 o r 32 p e r c e n t a s com pared j w i t h 7 .9 7 o r 13 p e r c e n t by t h e b o y s. T h is i s a d i f f e r - I ence o f 10 .8 2 o r 18 p e r c e n t , w hich i n d i c a t e d t h a t t h e 72 TABLE 4 LIST OF UNFOUNDED BELIEFS AND THEIR TOTAL NUMBER OF TRUE RESPONSES Item number T o t a l t r u e r e s p o n s e P e r c e n t age Item number T o ta l t r u e r e s p o n s e P e r c e n t age 1 7 8 .1 31 13 1 5 .3 2 37 43. 32 8 8 .1 3 4 4 .6 33 9 1 0 .4 4 8 9 .3 34 10 1 .1 5 23 2 6 .7 35 9 1 0 .4 6 10 1 .1 36 16 1 8 .6 7 2 2 .3 37 11 1 2 .8 8 16 1 8 .6 38 22 2 5 .6 9 19 2 2 .1 39 12 13 .9 10 22 2 5 .6 40 4 4 .6 11 6 6 .9 41 4 4 .6 12 7 8 .1 42 13 15 .3 13 9 1 0 .4 43 11 1 2 .8 14 7 8 .3 44 0 0. 15 23 26 .7 45 8 8 .1 16 12 1 3 .9 46 18 2 0 .9 17 15 1 7 .4 47 7 8 .1 18 4 4 .6 48 8 8 .1 19 6 6 .9 49 38 4 4 .2 20 7 8 .1 50 13 1 5 .3 21 9 1 0 .4 51 18 2 0 .9 22 13 1 5 .3 52 1 i . i 23 7 8 .3 53 20 2 3 .3 24 10 1 .1 54 21 2 4 .4 25 7 8 .3 55 6 6 .9 26 9 1 0 .4 56 19 2 2 .1 27 9 1 0 .4 57 20 2 3 .3 28 7 8 .3 58 9 1 0 .4 29 4 4 .6 59 6 6 .9 30 5 5 .8 60 7 8 .1 g i r l s t a k i n g t h i s t e s t b e l i e v e d in o v e r tw ic e a s many s u p e r s t i t i o n s and m is c o n c e p tio n s a s d id t h e b o y s. The a v e r a g e number o f ite m s m arked nT ru e ,f by t h e boys was 4 .5 1 and by t h e g i r l s 1 0 .4 4 . T h is i s a d i f f e r e n c e o f 5 .9 3 . T a b le 5 and T a b le 6 show t h e number o f u n fo u n d ed i b e l i e f s m is se d by boys and g i r l s . Two boys r e c e i v e d a p e r f e c t s c o r e , m arkin g a l l t h e s t a te m e n t s f a l s e . Not one g i r l made a p e r f e c t s c o r e . S ix boys made o n ly one e r r o r a s com pared w i t h two g i r l s m aking t h e same s c o r e . S i x t y - f i v e p e r c e n t o r 39 ite m s was t h e h i g h e s t number m is se d ib y one b oy , w h ile one g i r l m is s e d 74 p e r c e n t o r 46 o f t h e 60 t e s t i te m s . O n e - th i r d o f t h e ite m s was m is se d by 4 boys a s com pared w i t h 18 g i r l s m is s in g t h i s am ount. The number o f boys m is s in g each u n fo u n d ed b e l i e f i s shown on T a b le 7. The ite m s m is se d m ost o f t e n w ere number 2, ’’Toads c a u s e w a r t s , ” and number 4 9 , ’’E a tin g b an an a s w i t h w h isk ey w i l l make you s i c k . ” Both o f t h e s e s t a t e m e n t s r e c e i v e d 18 p o s i t i v e r e s p o n s e s . Item number " 4 6 , ’’E a tin g w a term elo n and d r i n k i n g sod a pop w i l l make you s i c k , ” was t h e n e x t h i g h e s t s t a te m e n t m is s e d by t h e b o y s , r e c e i v i n g 15 p o s i t i v e r e s p o n s e s . Item 19, ” I f you ! s p i l l s a l t , you w i l l hav e bad l u c k ” ; ite m 28, ’’Whenever good t h i n g s happen t o y o u , knock on wood o r e l s e y o u r 74 TABLE 5 LIST OF 39 BOYS AND NUMBER OF UNFOUNDED BELIEFS MISSED BY EACH I n d i v i d u a l T o ta l num- I n d i v i d u a l T o ta l num- boy b e r m is s e d boy b e r m is se d 1 1 21 39 2 4 22 4 3 34 23 3 4 10 24 8 5 13 25 12 6 10 26 3 7 3 27 10 8 0 28 7 9 1 29 2 10 0 30 37 11 1 31 5 12 4 32 12 13 1 33 12 14 3 34 26 15 4 35 7 16 5 36 2 17 3 37 9 18 5 38 1 19 9 39 1 20 12 / TABLE 6 LIST OF 47 GIRLS AND NUMBER OF UNFOUNDED BELIEFS MISSED BY EACH • I n d i v i d u a l g i r l " - - - - - - - - - - - - T . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . — T o ta l num b e r m is se d — — i - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - - I n d i v i d u a l g i r l T o ta l num b e r m isse d 1 13 25 6 2 11 26 25 3 4 27 1 4 38 28 4 5 8 29 27 6 1 30 28 7 4 31 46 8 23 32 37 9 12 33 34 10 12 34 3 11 4 35 25 12 13 36 9 13 7 37 6 14 19 38 25 15 5 39 12 16 35 40 26 17 41 41 32 18 9 42 15 19 17 43 10 20 15 44 19 21 3 45 39 22 43 46 13 23 39 47 12 24 45 76 TABLE 7 THE NUMBER OF BOYS MISSING EACH UNFOUNDED BELIEF Item Number Item Number number o f boys number o f boys 1 2 , 31 3 2 18 32 5 3 3 33 2 4 2 34 8 5 9 35 5 6 5 36 7 7 1 37 7 8 6 38 8 9 7 39 5 10 9 40 1 11 4 41 3 12 3 42 6 13 5 43 7 14 5 44 2 15 13 45 2 16 4 46 15 17 9 46 3 18 5 48 9 19 1 49 18 20 4 50 5 21 9 51 4 22 4 52 1 23 3 53 10 24 4 54 10 25 4 55 6 26 6 56 9 27 4 57 7 28 1 58 6 29 3 59 4 30 5 60 4 lu c k w i l l run o u t ” ; and ite m 52, ” I t i s bad lu c k t o come in t h e f r o n t d o o r and go o u t t h e back d o o r ” w ere t h e t h r e e e rro n e o u s b e l i e f s m is se d t h e l e a s t number o f tim e s by t h e b o y s. They each r e c e i v e d o n ly one p o s i t i v e j r e s p o n s e . T a b le 8 shows t h e number o f g i r l s m is s in g each u n fo u n d ed b e l i e f . T h i r t y - t h r e e g i r l s m arked ite m 49 t r u e , ” E a tin g b ananas w i t h w h isk e y w i l l make you s i c k . ” T h i r t y g i r l s m arked ite m 38 w hich s t a t e d , ” I f you f i n d a f o u r - l e a f c l o v e r , i t w i l l b r i n g you good l u c k , ” t r u e o r p a r t i a l l y t r u e . T h ir d h i g h e s t was ite m 4 6 , ” E a tin g w aterm elo n and d r i n k i n g so da pop w i l l make you s i c k , ” w i t h 28 p o s i t i v e r e s p o n s e s . T here w ere 16 s t a t e m e n t s r e c e i v i n g p o s i t i v e r e s p o n s e s by 20 o r more g i r l s , w h ile n o t one s ta te m e n t was m is s e d o v e r 18 tim e s by t h e b o y s. 78 TABLE 8 THE NUMBER OF GIRLS MISSING EACH UNFOUNDED BELIEF Item number Number o f g i r l s Item number Number o f g i r l s 1 10 31 19 2 25 32 17 3 11 33 13 4 10 34 16 5 23 35 12 6 15 36 16 7 3 37 23 8 19 38 30 9 22 39 21 10 22 40 4 11 8 41 6 12 9 42 14 13 7 43 20 14 7 44 2 15 25 45 12 16 16 46 28 17 14 47 9 18 13 48 10 19 9 49 33 20 14 50 1 6 i 21 8 51 25 j 22 21 52 3 23 13 53 22 ! 24 11 54 23 25 7 55 10 26 8 56 17 27 18 57 22 28 15 58 15 29 3 59 12 30 8 60 10 ' CHAPTER V II SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS The p u rp o se o f t h i s s tu d y was t w o - f o l d : (1) t o g a t h e r and p u t t o g e t h e r in an o r d e r l y form a l i s t o f u n fo u n d ed b e l i e f s h e a r d o f o r b e l i e v e d in by a g roup o f e i g h t h g ra d e s t u d e n t s ; and (2) t o f i n d t h e p r e v a l e n c e o f t h e s e b e l i e f s among p u p i l s o f th e same b a ck g ro u n d a s t h e b e f o r e - m e n tio n e d s t u d e n t s . B e fo re a t t e m p t i n g t o p u rs u e t h e p ro b lem , books and p e r i o d i c a l s w ere s t u d i e d t o g a in t h e know ledge r e q u i r e d f o r t h i s ty p e o f s t u d y . Summary The p ro c e d u r e f o r t h i s s tu d y was o r g a n iz e d i n t o two m a jo r p a r t s . The f i r s t p a r t c o n s i s t e d o f h a v in g e i g h t h g r a d e l i f e s c i e n c e s t u d e n t s w r i t e down on p a p e r e v e ry s u p e r s t i t i o n o r m is c o n c e p tio n th e y c o u ld remember. The second p a r t c o n s i s t e d o f t a k i n g t h e m ost p r e v a l e n t o f t h e s e e rro n e o u s b e l i e f s and g i v i n g them t o a n o th e r g ro u p o f e i g h t h g r a d e l i f e s c i e n c e s t u d e n t s in t h e form o f a t e s t . The t e s t ite m s w ere t o be an sw ered " T r u e , ” ’’P a r t i a l l y T r u e , ” o r ’’F a l s e . ” A s ta te m e n t m arked p a r t i a l l y t r u e i n d i c a t e d a p o s i t i v e r e s p o n s e . A su m m a riz a tio n o f t h e r e s u l t s o f t h i s s tu d y i s a s f o l lo w s : 1. The 148 p u p i l s s e l e c t e d f o r t h i s p a r t o f t h e s tu d y w ere a b l e t o w r i t e an a v e ra g e o f 4 .0 2 unfoun ded b e l i e f s p e r p u p i l , w hich i n c lu d e d 122 d i f f e r e n t b e l i e f s . 2. Of th e. 148 s t u d e n t s , 8 8 .5 p e r c e n t s a i d th e y had h e a rd o f t h e s u p e r s t i t i o n w hich s t a t e d , ” I t i s bad l u c k . f o r a b l a c k c a t t o c r o s s y o u r p a t h ” ; and 6 2 .5 p e r c e n t i n d i c a t e d th e y had a t one tim e b e l i e v e d t h i s ite m t o be t r u e . A p p ro x im a te ly 21 p e r c e n t o f t h e p u p i l s e x p r e s s e d a c u r r e n t b e l i e f in t h i s s u p e r s t i t i o n . 3. A p p ro x im a te ly 86 p e r c e n t o f t h e s e p u p i l s had h e a rd o f t h e m is c o n c e p tio n w hich s t a t e d t h a t i an i n d i v i d u a l would become i l l i f he a t e i i f i s h and m ilk t o g e t h e r . I t a l s o fou nd t h a t 4 2 .2 p e r c e n t had a t one tim e b e l i e v e d t h i s s t a te m e n t t o be t r u e , w h ile 2 2 .2 e x p r e s s e d i a c u r r e n t b e l i e f in t h i s m is c o n c e p tio n . 81 4 . F i f t y - n i n e o f t h e 148 p u p i l s r e c a l l e d from memory t h e s u p e r s t i t i o n t h a t t e l l s o f bad lu c k h a p p e n in g t o anyone who w alk s u n d e r a ! l a d d e r . T his s u p e r s t i t i o n was w r i t t e n t h e m ost tim e s by t h e p u p i l s . I 5. Many o f t h e 86 p u p i l s t e s t e d f o r un fo u n d ed i b e l i e f s w ere v e ry c r e d u l o u s . 6. E very ite m on t h e t e s t r e c e i v e d a t l e a s t one p o s i t i v e r e s p o n s e . 7. The r e s u l t s showed t h e g i r l s b e l i e v e d in o v e r tw ic e aa many u n fo u n d ed b e l i e f s as t h e b o y s. T h ere w ere o n ly two p a p e rs i n d i c a t i n g no b e l i e f in any o f t h e l i s t e d s u p e r s t i t i o n s o r m i s c o n c e p t i o n s - - b o t h t u r n e d in by b o y s. One g i r l i n d i c a t e d a b e l i e f in 94 p e r c e n t o f t h e i te m s . The h i g h e s t number i n d i c a t e d by a boy was 53 p e r c e n t . 8. The t h r e e un fo u n d ed b e l i e f s w hich r e c e i v e d t h e ! i i l a r g e s t number o f p o s i t i v e r e s p o n s e s w ere j (1) ’’Toads c a u s e w a r ts ,* ’ (2) ”A c a t h a s n i n e j i l i v e s , ” and (3) ’’E a tin g b a n an a s w i t h w h isk ey i w i l l make a p e rs o n s i c k . ” ! 82 C o n c lu s io n s The d a t a c o n t a i n e d in t h i s s tu d y p o i n t s t o t h e i I 'f o l l o w i n g c o n c l u s i o n s : 1. T h e re i s d e f i n i t e l y a n e e d f o r f u r t h e r i n v e s t i g a t i o n t o s c i e n t i f i c a l l y d e te r m in e a l l o f t h e f a c t o r s and t h e v a r y i n g d e g r e e t o w h ic h t h e s e f a c t o r s a r e r e s p o n s i b l e f o r t h e c o n t i n u a n c e o f u n fo u n d e d b e l i e f s . 2 . Some o f t h e d a t a p r e s e n t e d in t h e p r e v io u s s t u d i e s c a n n o t b e c o n s i d e r e d a s e n t i r e l y j a c c u r a t e . 3. B e t t e r i n s t r u m e n t s by w h ic h e x p e r i m e n t a l r e s u l t s can be m e a su re d m u st b e d e v e lo p e d i f t h e s t u d i e s a r e t o be a c c u r a t e l y i n t e r p r e t e d . Rec ommendat io n s The re c o m m e n d a tio n s a r e b a s e d b o th on t h i s e x p e r i - , m ent and t h e p r e v i o u s i n v e s t i g a t i o n s m e n tio n e d in t h i s j t s t u d y . 1. The s c i e n t i f i c m ethod a p p ro a c h s h o u ld be p r e s e n t e d a t e v e r y g r a d e l e v e l . I t i s r e a l i z e d ^ h o w e v e r, t h a t t h i s m eth o d w i l l n o t be u t i l i z e d i in many i n s t a n c e s b e c a u s e many t e a c h e r s h a v e , 83 n o t b e en t r a i n e d t o u s e t h i s s c i e n t i f i c a p p r o a c h . 2 . Most p u p i l s p o s s e s s some u n fo u n d e d b e l i e f s . I t h a s b e en fo u n d in p r e v i o u s s t u d i e s t h a t g e n e r a l s c i e n c e i n s t r u c t i o n i s o f l i t t l e v a lu e in l e s s e n i n g t h e s e b e l i e f s , t h e r e f o r e , i t i s a d v is e d t h a t t h e y b e g iv e n s p e c i f i c i n s t r u c t i o n in s c i e n c e c l a s s e s f o r t h e e x p r e s s p u r p o s e o f e l i m i n a t i n g t h e s e e r r o n e o u s i d e a s . 3 . B e t t e r e d u c a t i o n a l o p p o r t u n i t i e s f o r t h e p a r e n t s i s a n o t h e r re c o m m e n d atio n f o r t h e r e d u c t i o n o f u n fo u n d e d b e l i e f s . I t i s t h e home w h ic h e n g e n d e rs many o f t h e s e b e l i e f s . Some ways o f h e l p i n g p a r e n t s t o d i s p e l l s u p e r s t i t i o n s and m is c o n c e p t i o n s a r e f i r s t , a d u l t e d u c a ti o n c l a s s e s ; s e c o n d , n e w s p a p e rs and p e r i o d i c a l a r t i c l e s w r i t t e n e s p e c i a l l y f o r t h e p u r p o s e o f in f o r m in g p a r e n t s a b o u t w h ic h n o t i o n s a r e u n fo u n d e d and how th e y may b e h a rm f u l t o t h e i r f a m i ly ; an d t h i r d , th r o u g h t e l e v i s i o n and r a d i o p ro g ra m s . I t i s a d i f f i c u l t t a s k t o w ip e o u t u n fo u n d e d b e l i e f s and t h e p o s s i b i l i t y o f c o m p le te ly d o in g so i s re m o te b e c a u s e man i s a lw a y s a s k in g q u e s t i o n s and g i v i n g a n s w e rs w h ic h a r e n o t a lw a y s c o r r e c t . I t i s , h o w e v e r, t h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y o f t h e s c h o o l t o com bat t o t h e b e s t o f i t s a b i l i t y t h e e r r o n e o u s b e l i e f s w h ic h r e t a r d i n t e l l e c t u a l d e v e lo p m e n t and s c i e n t i f i c p r o g r e s s . ! B I B L IO G R A P H Y I 1 85 ! BIBLIOGRAPHY Books 1. B e rg e n , Fanny D. C u r r e n t S u p e r s t i t i o n s . London: H o u g h to n , M i f f l i n an d Company, 1896. 161 pp. 2. C a ld w e ll, O t i s W ., and L u n d een , G e rh a rd E. Do You B e li e v e I t ? G arden C i t y , New Y ork: D o u b le d a y , D oran and Company, 1934. 307 p p. 3. C a n n e l l, M a r g a r e t. S i g n s , Omens and P o r t e n t s in N e b ra s k a F o l k l o r e . L in c o ln , N e b ra s k a : U n i v e r s i t y o f N e b ra s k a P r e s s , 1933. 112 p p . 4 . F i s k e , J o h n . M yths and M y th -M a k e rs. B o sto n : H oughton M i f f l i n Company, 1900. 251 p p . 5 . H a rd w ic k , C h a r l e s . T r a d i t i o n s , S u p e r s t i t i o n s , and F o l k l o r e . L ondon: S im p k in , M a r s h a ll and Company, 1872. 306 p p . 6. J a s t r o w , J o s e p h . F a c t an d F a b l e in P s y c h o lo g y . B o s to n : H oughton M i f f l i n Company, 1900. 375 p p . 7 . L y s , C la u d e d e . A T r e a s u r y o f A m erican S u p e r s t i t i o n s . New Y ork: The P h i l o s o p h i c a l L i b r a r y , 1948. 494 p p . 8 . R a d f o rd , E dw in, an d R a d fo rd , M. A. E n c y c lo p a e d ia o f S u p e r s t i t i o n s . New Y ork: The P h i l o s o p h i c a l L i b r a r y , 1949. 269 p p . 9 . R ead, C a r v e th . The O r ig in o f Man and o f H is S u p e r s t i t i o n s . C am b rid g e: The U n i v e r s i t y P r e s s , 1920. 350 p p . 1 0. S a n ta y a n a , G e o rg e . The L i f e o f R e a s o n . New Y ork: C h a r le s S c r i b n e r 's S o n s , 1906, V o l. 3 , 279 p p . 86 87 1 11. 1 2 . 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 2 0 . S a r g a n t , W illia m . B a t t l e f o r t h e M in d . New Y ork: D o u b le d ay an d Company, I n c . , 195 7 . 263 p p . P e r i o d i c a l A r t i c l e s B e c k w ith , M a rth a W a rre n . " S ig n s an d S u p e r s t i t i o n s C o l l e c t e d from A m erican C o lle g e G i r l s , " J o u r n a l o f A m erican F o l k l o r e , XXXVI (M arch, 1 9 2 3 ), 1 -1 5 . B la c k o w s k i, S te p h a n . " M a g ic a l B e h a v io r o f C h ild r e n in R e l a t i o n t o S c h o o l ," A m erican J o u r n a l o f P s y c h o lo g y , L (N ovem ber, 1 9 3 7 ), 3 4 7 -6 1 . ! B ru n sc h w ig , L i l l y . " P s y c h o l o g i c a l M is c o n c e p tio n s o f a G roup o f N egro C o lle g e S t u d e n ts and T h e ir R e l a t i o n s h i p t o O th e r F a c t o r s , " J o u r n a l o f S o c i a l P s y c h o lo g y , X V III (A u g u s t, 1 9 4 3 ), 1 1 1 -2 6 . C o n k lin , E. S. " S u p e r s t i t i o u s B e l i e f s a n d P r a c t i c e s Among C o lle g e S t u d e n t s , " A m erican J o u r n a l o f P s y c h o lo g y , XXX (1 9 1 9 ), 8 3 -1 0 2 . C r o w e ll, D a v id , and A r t h u r , D a le . "A nim ism and C o lle g e S t u d e n t s , " J o u r n a l o f E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h , L ( J a n u a r y , 1 9 5 7 ), 1 2 3 -9 . D udycha, G eo rg e J . "T he S u p e r s t i t i o u s B e l i e f s o f C o lle g e S t u d e n t s , " J o u r n a l o f A bnorm al and S o c i a l P s y c h o lo g y , XXVII ( 1 9 3 3 ) , 4 5 7 -6 4 . D z e n o w a g is, J o s e p h G ., an d I r w i n , L e s l i e . " P r e v a l e n c e o f C e r t a i n H arm fu l H e a lth and S a f e t y M is c o n c e p tio n s Among F i f t h an d S ix th - G r a d e C h i l d r e n , " R e s e a rc h Q u a r t e r l y , XXV (May, 1 9 5 4 ), 1 5 0 -6 3 . _________. " P r e v a l e n c e o f C e r t a i n H a rm fu l H e a l t h and S a f e t y M is c o n c e p tio n s Among P r o s p e c t i v e E le m e n ta ry T e a c h e r s ," R e s e a rc h Q u a r t e r l y , XXVI (M arch, 1 9 5 5 ), 4 4 - 4 8 . Emme, E a r l e E. " M o d i f i c a ti o n an d O r ig in o f C e r t a i n B e l i e f s in S u p e r s t i t i o n Among 96 C o lle g e S t u d e n t s , " J o u r n a l o f P s y c h o lo g y , X ( J u l y , 1 9 4 0 ), 2 7 9 -9 0 . 21. 22 . 2 3 . 2 4 . 25. 2 6 . 27. 28. 29. 3 0 . 3 1 . 88 1 Emme, E a r l e E. " S u p p le m e n ta ry S tu d y o f S u p e r s t i t i o u s * B e l i e f s Among C o lle g e S t u d e n t s , ” J o u r n a l o f j P s y c h o lo g y , X I I ( O c to b e r , 1 9 4 1 ), 1 8 3 -8 4 . G a r r e t t , H. E . , an d F i s h e r , T. R. ” The P r e v a l e n c e o f C e r t a i n P o p u la r M i s c o n c e p t i o n s ,” J o u r n a l o f A p p lie d P s y c h o lo g y , X (1 9 2 6 ), 4 1 1 -2 1 . G i l l i l a n d , A. R. ”A S tu d y o f S u p e r s t i t i o n s o f C o lle g e S t u d e n t s , ” J o u r n a l o f A bnorm al and S o c i a l P s y c h o lo g y , XXIV ( 1 9 3 0 ) , 4 7 3 -7 9 . G o u ld , R u s s e l l L. ” S u p e r s t i t i o n s among S c o t t i s h G i r l s , ” P e d a g o g ic a l S e m in a ry , XXVIII ( J u n e , 1 9 2 1 ), 2 0 3 -4 8 . G ra u b a r d , M. ” Some C o n te m p o ra ry O b s e r v a tio n s on A n c ie n t S u p e r s t i t i o n s , ” J o u r n a l o f A m erican F o l k l o r e , LIX ( A p r i l , 1 9 4 6 ), 1 2 4 -3 3 . H ancock, C y r i l H. " E v a l u a t i o n o f C e r t a i n P o p u la r S c ie n c e M i s c o n c e p t i o n s , ” S c ie n c e E d u c a t i o n , XXIV ( A p r i l , 1 9 4 0 ), 2 0 8 -1 3 . H a r t e r , R. S. ” E f f e c t s o f T r a i n i n g Upon t h e B e l i e f in C e r t a i n P o p u la r M i s c o n c e p t i o n s ,” J o u r n a l o f A p p lie d P s y c h o lo g y , XXI ( F e b r u a r y , 1 9 3 7 ), 1 1 9 -2 9 . L e v i t t , E ugene E. " S u p e r s t i t i o n s : T w e n ty -F iv e Y e a rs Ago an d T o d a y ,” A m erican J o u r n a l o f P s y c h o lo g y ( J u l y , 1 9 5 2 ), 4 4 3 -4 9 . L u n d een , G e rh a rd E . , and C a ld w e l l, O t i s W. ”A S tu d y o f U nfounded B e l i e f s Among H igh S c h o o l S e n i o r s , 1 1 J o u r n a l o f E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h , XXII (N ovem ber, 1 9 3 0 ), 2 5 7 -7 3 . M a i l e r , J . B . , and L u n d een , G. E. " S o u rc e s o f S u p e r s t i t i o u s B e l i e f s , ” J o u r n a l o f E d u c a ti o n a l R e s e a r c h , XXVI ( J a n u a r y , 1 9 3 3 ), 3 2 1 -4 3 . _________ . " S u p e r s t i t i o n s an d E m o tio n a l M a la d ju s tm e n ts ,” J o u r n a l o f E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h , XXVII ( A p r i l , 1 9 3 4 ), 5 9 2 -6 1 7 . 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 4 0 . 89 M i l l e r , E lm er H. nA S tu d y o f D i f f i c u l t y L e v e ls o f S e l e c t e d Types o f F a l l a c i e s in R e a s o n in g and T h e i r R e l a t i o n s h i p s t o t h e F a c t o r s o f S ex , G rade L e v e l, M e n ta l Age and S c h o l a s t i c S t a n d i n g / 1 J o u r n a l o f E d u c a ti o n a l R e s e a r c h , XXXIX ( O c to b e r , 1 9 5 5 ), 1 2 3 -2 9 . N ix o n , H. K. ’’P o p u la r A nsw ers t o Some P s y c h o l o g i c a l Q u e s t i o n s , ” A m erican J o u r n a l o f P s y c h o lo g y , XXVI ( A p r i l , 1 9 2 5 ), 4 1 8 -2 3 . P a g e , Ja m es. ’’S u p e r s t i t i o n and P e r s o n a l i t y , ” J o u r n a l o f E d u c a ti o n a l P s y c h o lo g y , XXVI ( J a n u a r y , 1 9 3 5 ), 5 9 -6 4 . P o w ers, F. F . “ I n f l u e n c e o f I n t e l l i g e n c e , ” J o u r n a l o f S o c i a l P s y c h o lo g y , I I (N ovem ber, 1 9 3 1 ), 4 9 0 -9 3 . R a ly a , L. L. , an d R a ly a , L. L. ’’Some S i g n i f i c a n t C o n c e p ts and B e l i e f s in A n th ro p o lo g y an d B io lo g y o f E n t e r i n g C o lle g e F re sh m e n , a n d t h e R e l a t i o n s o f T h ese t o G e n e r a l S c h o l a s t i c A p t i t u d e , ” S c ie n c e E d u c a t i o n , XXV (N ovem ber, 1 9 4 1 ), 3 1 4 -3 2 0 . ^________ . ’’Some S i g n i f i c a n t C o n c e p ts and B e l i e f s in A stron om y and G eo lo g y o f E n t e r i n g C o lle g e F r e s h men, and t h e R e l a t i o n s o f T h ese t o G e n e ra l S c h o l a s t i c A p t i t u d e , ” S c h o o l S c i e n c e , XL (N ovem ber, 1 9 4 0 ), 7 2 7 -7 3 4 . S m ith , V i c t o r C. ’’S c ie n c e M ethods and S u p e r s t i t i o n s , ” S c h o o l and S o c i e t y , XXXI (M ay,1930), 6 6 -8 . T e r K e u r s t , A r t h u r J . ’’S u p e r s t i t i o u s N a tu re o f D e lin q u e n t and N o n -D e lin q u e n t B o y s ,” J o u r n a l o f C r im in a l Law. XXIX ( J u l y , 1 9 3 8 ), 2 2 6 -2 4 0 . V a l e n t i n e , W. L. ’’Common M is c o n c e p tio n s o f C o lle g e S t u d e n t s , ” J o u r n a l o f A p p lie d P s y c h o lo g y , XX (D ecem ber, 1 9 3 6 ), 6 3 3 -6 5 8 . .J 90 4 1 . V ic k lu n d , 0 . U. 1 1 E l i m i n a t i o n o f S u p e r s t i t i o n in J u n i o r H igh S c h o o l S c i e n c e / 1 S c ie n c e E d u c a t i o n , XXIV ( F e b r u a r y , 1 9 4 0 ), 9 3 - 9 . 4 2 . W agner, M a zie . " S u p e r s t i t i o n s an d T h e i r S o c i a l and P s y c h o l o g i c a l C o r r e l a t i v e s Among C o lle g e S t u d e n t s , " J o u r n a l o f E d u c a ti o n a l S o c i o l o g y , I I (S e p te m b e r, 1 9 2 8 ), 2 6 -8 . 4 3 . Z a p f, R o s a lin d M. "C o m p ariso n o f R e sp o n se s t o S u p e r s t i t i o n s on a W r i t t e n T e s t and in A c t u a l S i t u a t i o n s , " J o u r n a l o f E d u c a t i o n a l R e s e a r c h , XXXIX (S e p te m b e r, 1 9 4 5 ), 1 3 -2 4 . 4 4 ._ _ _________. " D i r e c t A t t a c k on S u p e r s t i t i o n , " N a tio n 1s S c h o o l s , XXI (May, 1 9 3 8 ), 26. 4 5 . _________. " R e l a t i o n s h i p B etw een B e l i e f in S u p e r s t i t i o n s and O th e r F a c t o r s , " J o u r n a l o f E d u c a ti o n a l R e s e a r c h , XXXVIII ( A p r i l , 1 9 4 5 ), 5 6 1 -7 9 . 4 6 . - " S u p e r s t i t i o n s o f J u n i o r H igh S c h o o l P u p i l s , " J o u r n a l o f E d u c a ti o n a l R e s e a r c h , XXXI (May, 1 9 3 8 ), 4 3 5 -4 6 . 4 7 ._ _ _________. " S u p e r s t i t i o u s B e l i e f s , " S c h o o l S c ie n c e and M a th , XXXIX ( J a n u a r y , 1 9 3 9 ), 5 4 -6 2 . P a r t s o f S e r i e s 4 8 . D r e s s l a r , F l e t c h e r B. S u p e r s t i t i o n and E d u c a t i o n . U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a P u b l i c a t i o n s in E d u c a tio n , V o l. 5, No. 1. B e r k e l e y , C a l i f o r n i a : U n i v e r s i t y o f C a l i f o r n i a P r e s s , 1907. 239 p p . E n c y c lo p a e d ia A r t i c l e s 4 9 . R o se , H e r b e r t J . " S u p e r s t i t i o n s , " E n c y c lo p a e d ia B r i t a n n i c a . XXI, 1 4 th E d i t i o n , 577. 91 U n p u b lis h e d M a t e r i a l s j 5 0. E b e r t , S te p h e n J . flAn E x p e r im e n ta l I n v e s t i g a t i o n J off t h e R e l a t i o n s h i p B etw een S u p e r s t i t i o u s B e l i e f s and E m o tio n a l M a l a d ju s tm e n t." U n p u b lis h e d M a s t e r 's t h e s i s , The U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , Los A n g e le s , 1946. 43 p p . 5 1 . J a g g e r s , C rad d o ck H. "T he S u p e r s t i t i o n s o f J u n i o r H igh S c h o o l P u p i l s . " U n p u b lis h e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , G eo rg e P eabody C o lle g e f o r T e a c h e r s , N a s h v i l l e , T e n n e s s e e , 1935. 89 pp. 5 2 . T i n g l e , B e t t y . "O ur S u p e r s t i t i o n s and How They O r i g i n a t e d . " I n d e p e n d e n t S tu d y P la n : U n i v e r s i t y o f S o u th e rn C a l i f o r n i a , Los A n g e le s , 1936. 30 p p . A P P E N D I X i 92 APPENDIX A SUPERSTITION AND MISCONCEPTION QUESTIONNAIRE I . PLEASE LIST THREE FALSE BELIEFS (SUPERSTITIONS) WHICH YOU HAVE HEARD. E x a m p le s : 1. I t i s u n lu c k y f o r a b l a c k c a t t o c r o s s y o u r p a t h . 2 . F i s h and m ilk e a t e n t o g e t h e r w i l l make you s i c k . I I . HAVE YOU EVER HEARD OF THE ABOVE EXAMPLES OF SUPERSTITIONS BEFORE NOW? Exam ple No. 1 YES ( ) NO ( ) Exam ple No. 2 YES ( ) NO ( ) I I I . DO YOU BELIEVE THAT THESE SUPERSTITIONS ARE TRUE? Exam ple No. 1 YES ( ) NO ( ) E xam ple N o. 2 YES ( ) NO ( ) ______________ 93 94 IV. DID YOU AT ONE TIME BELIEVE THESE EXAMPLES TO BE TRUE? Exam ple No. 1 YES ( ) NO ( ) Exam ple No. 2 YES ( ) NO ( ) V. IF YOU CAN THINK OF MORE THAN THREE FALSE BELIEFS LIST THEM ON THE BACK OF THIS SHEET OF PAPER. APPENDIX B SUPERSTITIONS AND MISCONCEPTIONS RECALLED BY PUPILS IN THIS STUDY NO. OF TIMES RECALLED I f y o u r l e f t e y e i t c h e s , you w i l l h a v e bad l u c k . 4 I f y o u r r i g h t ey e i t c h e s , you w i l l h a v e good l u c k . 3 When y o u r h an d i t c h e s , you w i l l r e c e i v e m oney. 2 A r i n g a ro u n d t h e moon i s a s i g n o f r a i n . 2 I t i s b ad l u c k t o l i g h t t h r e e c i g a r e t t e s w i t h one m a tc h . 1 I f two p e o p le s a y t h e sam e t h i n g a t t h e same tim e and th e n make a w i s h , t h e w is h w i l l come t r u e . 2 I f you b r e a k a m i r r o r , you w i l l h a v e se v e n y e a r s bad l u c k . 55 F r i d a y , t h e t h i r t e e n t h , i s an u n lu c k y d a y . 28 You w i l l h a v e good l u c k i f you c a r r y a r a b b i t 1s f o o t . 19 I f you f i n d a f o u r - l e a f c l o v e r , i t w i l l b r i n g you good lu c k . 15 A h o r s e s h o e b r i n g s good l u c k . 6 I t i s b a d l u c k t o g r e a s e y o u r s c a l p w i t h y o u r p o i n t i n g f i n g e r . 2 95 96 NO. O F TIMES RECALLED I f you d ro p a s a l t s h a k e r , you w i l l h a v e b a d l u c k . 2 I t i s b a d l u c k t o h i t som eone w i t h a broom . 4 A c a t h a s n i n e l i v e s . 9 I t i s b ad l u c k t o p l a c e a h a t on t h e b e d . 4 I f a b i r d t a k e s a s t r a n d o f y o u r h a i r and p u t s i t in h i s n e s t , you w i l l h a v e bad l u c k . 2 E a t in g w a te rm e lo n an d d r i n k i n g so d a pop w i l l make you s i c k . 8 E a t in g b a n a n a s w i t h w h is k e y m akes you s i c k . 4 I f two p e o p le comb one p e r s o n 's h a i r a t t h e same t im e , t h e y o u n g e r p e rs o n w i l l d i e f i r s t . 3 I f you w is h f o r s o m e th in g and you c r o s s y o u r f i n g e r s on b o th h a n d s y o u r w is h w i l l come t r u e . 2 I t i s b a d lu c k t o sw eep y o u r f e e t w i t h r a broom . 2 When tw o p e o p le g ra b h o l d o f a c h ic k e n w ish b o n e and b r e a k i t , t h e p e rs o n h o l d in g t h e l o n g e s t p i e c e w i l l h a v e h i s w is h come t r u e . 2 I t i s b a d l u c k t o come in t h e f r o n t d o o r and go o u t t h e b a c k d o o r . 2 The g ro u n d hog i s a f r a i d o f h i s own shadow . 5 I t i s bad lu c k f o r t h e groom t o s e e t h e b r i d e b e f o r e t h e w e d d in g . 5 ; I t i s good lu c k t o th ro w a h o r s e s h o e o v e r y o u r l e f t s h o u l d e r . I S te p p in g o v e r a broom w i l l b r i n g b a d l u c k . T oads c a u s e w a r t s . I f you p r e s s a lo c k o f y o u r h a i r in t h e B i b l e , y o u r h a i r w i l l grow l o n g e r . I f you p u t y o u r t o o t h u n d e r a p i l l o w , t h e good f a i r y w i l l b r i n g you m oney. S i l v e r d o l l a r s a r e lu c k y . Hang a h o r s e s h o e o v e r y o u r d o o r u p s i d e - down f o r good l u c k . I t i s u n lu c k y f o r t h i r t e e n p e o p le t o s i t down t o d i n n e r . j You w i l l r e c e i v e bad l u c k i f you w a lk u n d e r a l a d d e r . I t i s b a d l u c k t o b r e a k a m i r r o r . I t i s b a d lu c k t o open an u m b r e lla in t h e h o u s e . I f you g i v e a f r i e n d a k n i f e o r p a i r o f s c i s s o r s , you w i l l s e v e r h i s f r i e n d s h i p . C raw l u n d e r a t a b l e an d you s h a l l grow s m a l l . I t i s v e ry lu c k y f o r a w h i t e c a t t o c r o s s y o u r p a t h . N ever s p l i t a p o le o r you w i l l s p l i t a f r i e n d s h i p . A woman on a s h i p i s b a d l u c k . 98" NO. O F TIMES RECALLED P i c k l e s and m ilk w i l l make you s i c k . I f a p e rs o n g e t s o u t o f b ed on t h e l e f t s i d e , t h i n g s w i l l go w rong a l l d a y . T h i r t e e n i s an u n lu c k y num ber. I f you s e e a p in and p i c k i t u p , th e n a l l day you w i l l h a v e good lu c k . I f you s p i l l s a l t , you w i l l h a v e bad lu c k . I t i s good lu c k t o th ro w s a l t o v e r y o u r l e f t s h o u l d e r . P e o p le who a r e f o r t u n e t e l l e r s can r e a l l y p r e d i c t t h e f u t u r e . I t i s bad lu c k t o show y o u r w ed d in g d r e s s t o t h e groom b e f o r e t h e w e d d in g . To th ro w a h o r s e s h o e b e h in d you i s good lu c k , I t i s bad lu c k f o r a b l a c k c a t t o c r o s s y o u r p a t h . F i s h and m ilk w i l l make you s i c k . I f you s e e a f a l l i n g s t a r and you c an sa y "Money b e f o r e t h e w eek i s o v e r , " b e f o r e t h e s t a r d i s a p p e a r s , you w i l l h a v e money b e f o r e t h e w eek i s o v e r . I f you f l u s h y o u r h a i r in t h e t o i l e t , i t w i l l make y o u r h a i r grow . When i t t h u n d e r s , t h e d e v i l and h i s w if e a r e f i g h t i n g . When y o u r n o se i t c h e s , som eone i s t a l k i n g a b o u t y o u . 3 3 2 8 13 2 3 EX EX I t i s b a d l u c k t o h a v e one sh o e on and one sh o e o f f . i I t i s good l u c k f o r a s p i d e r t o c r a w l on y o u . I t i s b a d l u c k t o go o u t w i t h a s t r a n g e r . A c a t s h o u ld n e v e r s l e e p in t h e same room w i t h y o u . D r in k in g m ilk w i t h c a b b a g e w i l l make you s i c k . I t i s b a d l u c k t o e a t m eat on F r i d a y . i W hiskey and c o rn w i l l make you s i c k . I t i s good lu c k t o p i c k up a b i r d ’ s f e a t h e r . You w i l l h a v e b a d lu c k i f you dream o f a i b a l d h e a d e d m an. I Y o u ,w il l h a v e b a d l u c k i f you w h i s t l e in a h o u s e . I f you sw eep so m e o n e ’s s h o e s , you w i l l n o t go t o t h e i r w e d d in g . D r in k in g m ilk w i t h a v o c a d o s w i l l make you s i c k . B la c k c a t s a r e e v i l . I f you b r e a k a m i r r o r in se v e n p i e c e s , i t w i l l b r i n g you b a d l u c k . I f you t e l l y o u r dream b e f o r e b r e a k f a s t , i t w i l l come t r u e . I f you dream o f muddy w a t e r , som eone w i l l d i e in y o u r f a m i l y . When p e o p le d i e , t h e i r s o u l s r e a p p e a r a s f la m e s t o m eet t h e i r r e l a t i v e s . I t i s b ad lu c k t o l i g h t t h r e e c i g a r s w i t h one m a tc h . I f you s e e a penny and d o n 't p i c k i t u p , you w i l l h a v e b a d lu c k . I f you go o u t o f y o u r h o u s e and f o r g e t so m e th in g a n d come b a c k f o r i t , you w i l l h a v e b a d l u c k . I t i s b a d lu c k t o dream o f a s n a k e . S e e in g a b l a c k c a t w i l l make you s i c k . I t i s b a d lu c k t o w e a r s o c k s t h a t i do n o t m a tc h . I t i s b ad lu c k t o p u t y o u r l e f t sh o e on b e f o r e y o u r r i g h t o n e . A b ab y t h a t i s a llo w e d t o c r y w i l l h a v e d i f f i c u l t y c u t t i n g h i s t e e t h . I t i s u n lu c k y f o r a b i r d t o f l y in y o u r h o u s e . K i l l a t o a d , and you w i l l s t u b y o u r t o e . C a r r y in g a r a b b i t ' s l e f t h i n d f o o t w i l l b r i n g good l u c k . S te p p in g on a s id e w a lk c r a c k w i l l b r i n g b ad l u c k . A lc o h o l and o y s t e r s do n o t m ix . D ro p p in g s a l t on t h e f l o o r w i l l s t a r t a f u s s . : I t i s u n lu c k y t o sw eep t r a s h o u t o f | t h e d o o r a f t e r se v e n o * c lo c k . i i When you h a v e t h e h i c c u p s , you w i l l grow s e v e r a l in c h e s w i t h i n s i x m o n th s . F i s h an d i c e c re am w i l l make you s i c k . I f you la u g h to o m uch, s o m e th in g b ad w i l l h a p p en t o y o u . I t i s b ad lu c k f o r som eone t o s t e p o v e r you when you a r e l a y i n g on t h e f l o o r . I f you s p l i t a p o l e , y o u r m o th e r w i l l d i e . I t i s b a d l u c k t o t a l k b a c k t o y o u r m o th e r o r f a t h e r f o r so m e th in g m ig h t h a p p en t o them . I f w h i l e e a t i n g you coug h and s p i t o u t y o u r f o o d , som eone you know w i l l d i e . I f you l e t a dog l i c k an open s o r e , i t w i l l g e t w e l l q u ic k . I t i s lu c k y t o d r i n k p l e n t y o f w a t e r so t h e f i s h c a n swim. I t i s u n lu c k y t o i r o n t h e b a c k o f a T ee S h i r t . Lady b u g s b r i n g good l u c k . I t i s b ad lu c k t o harm a la d y b u g . I t i s u n lu c k y t o go o u t o f t h e h o u se on F r i d a y t h e t h i r t e e n t h . E a t in g g a r l i c w i l l p r o t e c t you fro m d i s e a s e . University of Southern California Library 102 NO. O F TIMES RECALLED E a t in g dogs w i l l b r i n g good l u c k . 1 A J a c k - O - L a n te r n w i l l d r i v e away e v i l s p i r i t s . 1 I f a g ro u n d hog comes o u t an d s e e s h i s shadow in t h e s p r i n g , w i n t e r w i l l l a s t two w eeks l o n g e r . 1 A w i t c h c an g r a n t w i s h e s . 1 S te p on a c a t , an d i t w i l l b r i n g r a i n . 1 W henever good t h i n g s h a p p en t o y o u , k n o ck on wood o r e l s e y o u r l u c k w i l l ru n o u t . 3 S p i t on a b o t t l e b e f o r e b r e a k i n g i t . 1 S w e a tin g a t n i g h t w i l l make you s i c k . 1 j I f you k i s s y o u r e lb o w , you w i l l f i n d a I l o t o f m oney. 1 I Look o v e r y o u r s h o u l d e r when t h e r e i s a f u l l moon, and you w i l l h a v e good l u c k . 1 I f a crow s i t s on y o u r window s i l l a t n i g h t , you w i l l h a v e b a d d r e a m s . 1 I f an owl s i t s on y o u r window s i l l a l l n i g h t , you w i l l h a v e b a d l u c k . 1 A m u s ta r d s e e d w orn a s a n e c k l a c e w i l l b r i n g good lu c k . 1 B re a k a m i r r o r , and you w i l l h a v e f o u r t e e n y e a r s b ad l u c k . 1 I f you c u t y o u r h a i r on t h e n i g h t o f a h a l f moon, when you d i e you w i l l b e b a l d h e a d e d . 1 I f a b i r d g e t s a p i e c e o f y o u r h a i r i n h i s n e s t , you w i l l h a v e a h e a d a c h e u n t i l h e — -b u ild s_ a _ n e w _ n es.t_________________________________________ 1______ 103 NO. O F TIMES RECALLED I f you a r e o u t a f t e r tw e lv e on S a tu r d a y n i g h t a n d * a b l a c k c a t c r o s s e s y o u r p a t h , you w i l l h a v e b ad l u c k f o r tw e lv e d a y s . 1 The c a r d s c a n t e l l y o u r f u t u r e . 1 When t h e r e i s a f u l l moon, som eone w i l l t u r n i n t o a w e r e w o lf. 1 A b r a v e man i s h e who s e t s s a i l on t h e l a s t day o f t h e y e a r . 1 I t i s b ad l u c k f o r a s a i l o r t o s p i l l s a l t b e f o r e a v o y a g e . 1 L APPENDIX C DIRECTIONS TO THE TEACHER GIVING THE 6 0 -ITEM TEST I . Have s t u d e n t s w r i t e t h e i r b i r t h p l a c e on t h e f i r s t s h e e t - b e lo w g r a d e . I I . P l e a s e e x p l a i n t h e d i r e c t i o n s in d e t a i l t o t h e s t u d e n t s . I I I . Hand t e s t s t o s t u d e n t s in t h e o r d e r in w h ic h th e y a r e a r r a n g e d . IV. I t i s i m p e r a t i v e t h a t s t u d e n t s do n o t co py from one a n o t h e r . V. Do n o t m e n tio n t h e w ord s u p e r s t i t i o n o r any o t h e r s i m i l a r w o rd . V I. Some o f t h e m im eographed t e s t s a r e f a u l t y . I f t h e s t u d e n t s who h a v e t h e s e p a p e r s c a n n o t u n d e r s t a n d th em , p l e a s e h e l p them . 104 APPENDIX D STUDENT DIRECTIONS FOR MISCONCEPTION AND SUPERSTITION TEST BOY OR GIRL DATE GRADE AGE _ DIRECTIONS ANSWER EACH ONE OF THESE STATEMENTS TO THE BEST OF YOUR ABILITY. IF YOU THINK THE STATEMENT IS TRUE - DRAW A CIRCLE AROUND THE " T ." IF YOU THINK THE STATEMENT IS FALSE - DRAW A CIRCLE AROUND THE " F . " , IF YOU THINK THAT THE STATEMENT IS PARTLY TRUE - DRAW A CIRCLE AROUND THE " P . " AS SOON AS YOU FINISH ONE PAGE START ON THE NEXT ONE. ANSWER ALL THE STATEMENTS. EXAMPLE: T F P MEN ARE SMARTER THAN WOMEN. T F P IF YOU THINK THIS STATEMENT IS TRUE T F P IF YOU THINK THIS STATEMENT IS FALSE T F P IF YOU THINK THIS STATEMENT IS PARTLY TRUE ___________ ,______________ 105__________________________________________ APPENDIX E COM M ON BELIEFS - TRUE F - FALSE P - PARTLY TRUE P STEPPING OVER A BROOM WILL BRING YOU BAD LUCK. P TOADS CAUSE WARTS. P IF YOU PRESS A LOCK OF YOUR HAIR IN THE BIBLE, YOUR HAIR WILL GROW LONGER. P IF YOU PUT YOUR TOOTH UNDER YOUR PILLOW, THE GOOD FAIRY WILL BRING YOU MONEY. P SILVER DOLLARS ARE LUCKY. P HANG A HORSESHOE OVER YOUR DOOR UPSIDE-DOWN FOR GOOD LUCK. P IT IS UNLUCKY FOR THIRTEEN PEOPLE TO SIT DOW N TO DINNER. / P YOU WILL RECEIVE BAD LUCK IF YOU WALK UNDER A LADDER. P IT IS BAD LUCK TO BREAK A MIRROR. P IT IS BAD LUCK TO OPEN AN UMBRELLA IN THE HOUSE P IF YOU GIVE A FRIEND A KNIFE OR PAIR OF SCISSORS, YOU SEVER HIS FRIENDSHIP. P IT IS VERY LUCKY FOR A WHITE CAT TO CROSS YOUR PATH. P NEVER SPLIT A POLE, OR YOU WILL SPLIT A FRIENDSHIP. - TRUE F - FALSE P - PARTLY TRUE | P A W OM AN ON A SHIP IS BAD LUCK. P PICKLES AND MILK WILL MAKE YOU SICK. P IF A PERSON GETS OUT ON THE LEFT SIDE OF THE BED, THINGS WILL GO WRONG ALL DAY. P THIRTEEN IS AN UNLUCKY NUMBER. P IF YOU SEE A PIN AND PICK IT UP, THEN ALL DAY YOU WILL HAVE GOOD LUCK. P IF YOUR SPILL SALT, YOU WILL HAVE BAD LUCK. P IT IS GOOD LUCK TO THROW SALT OVER YOUR LEFT SHOULDER. P PEOPLE W HO ARE FORTUNE TELLERS CAN REALLY PREDICT THE FUTURE. P IT IS BAD LUCK TO SHOW YOUR WEDDING DRESS TO THE GROOM BEFORE THE WEDDING. P TO THROW A HORSESHOE BEHIND YOU IS GOOD LUCK. P WHEN YOUR NOSE ITCHES, SOMEONE IS TALKING ABOUT YOU. P IT IS UNLUCKY FOR A BIRD TO FLY IN YOUR HOUSE. P IT IS BAD LUCK TO HARM A LADY BUG. P EATING GARLIC WILL PROTECT YOU FROM DISEASE. P WHENEVER GOOD THINGS HAPPEN TO YOU, KNOCK ON W OOD OR ELSE YOUR LUCK WILL RUN OUT. P IF YOUR LEFT EYE ITCHES, YOU WILL HAVE BAD LUCK. P IF YOUR RIGHT EYE ITCHES, YOU WILL HAVE GOOD HJCK. P WHEN YOUR HAND ITCHES, YOU WILL RECEIVE MONEY. 108 T - TRUE F - FALSE P - PARTLY TRUE T F P A RING AROUND THE MOON IS A SIGN OF RAIN. T F P IT IS BAD LUCK TO LIGHT THREE CIGARETTES WITH ONE MATCH. T F P IF TW O PEOPLE SAY THE SAME THING AT THE SAME TIME AND THEN MAKE A WISH, THE WISH WILL COME TRUE. T F P IF YOU BREAK A MIRROR, YOU WILL HAVE SEVEN YEARS BAD LUCK. T F P FRIDAY, THE THIRTEENTH, IS AN UNLUCKY DAY. T F P YOU WILL HAVE GOOD LUCK IF YOU CARRY A RABBIT'S FOOT. T F P IF YOU FIND A FOUR-LEAF CLOVER, IT WILL BRING YOU GOOD LUCK. T F P A HORSESHOE WILL BRING GOOD LUCK. T F P IT IS BAD LUCK TO GREASE YOUR SCALP WITH YOUR POINTING FINGER. T F P IF YOU DROP A SALT SHAKER, YOU WILL HAVE BAD LUCK. T F P IT IS BAD LUCK TO HIT SOMEONE WITH A BROOM. T F P A CAT HAS NINE LIVES. T F P IT IS BAD LUCK TO PLACE A HAT ON THE BED. T F P IF A BIRD TAKES A STRAND OF YOUR HAIR AND PUTS IT IN HIS NEST, YOU WILL HAVE BAD LUCK. T F P EATING WATERMELON AND DRINKING SODA POP WILL MAKE YOU SICK. T F P IF TW O PEOPLE COMB ONE PERSON'S HAIR AT THE SAME TIME, THE YOUNGER PERSON WILL DIE. 109 T - TRUE F - FALSE P - PARTLY TRUE T F P IF YOU WISH FOR SOMETHING AND YOU CROSS YOUR FINGERS ON BOTH HANDS, YOUR WISH WILL COME TRUE T F P EATING BANANAS WITH WHISKEY WILL MAKE YOU SICK. T F P IT IS BAD LUCK TO SWEEP YOUR FEET WITH A BROOM. T F P WHEN TW O PEOPLE GRAB HOLD OF A CHICKEN WISHBONE AND BREAK IT , THE PERSON HOLDING THE LONGEST PIECE WILL HAVE HIS WISH COME TRUE. T F P IT IS BAD LUCK TO COME IN THE FRONT DOOR AND GO OUT THE BACK DOOR. T F P THE GROUND HOG IS AFRAID OF HIS SHADOW. T F P IT IS BAD LUCK TO SEE THE BRIDE BEFORE THE WEDDING. T F P IT IS GOOD LUCK TO THROW A HORSESHOE OVER YOUR LEFT SHOULDER. T F P IT IS BAD LUCK FOR A BLACK CAT TO CROSS YOUR PATH. T F P FISH AND MILK WILL MAKE YOU SICK. T F P IF YOU SEE A FALLING STAR AND YOU CAN SAY nMONEY BEFORE THE WEEK IS OVER1’ BEFORE THE STAR DISAPPEARS, YOU WILL HAVE MONEY BEFORE THE WEEK IS OVER. T F P IF A BIRD GETS A PIECE OF YOUR HAIR IN HIS NEST, YOU WILL HAVE A HEADACHE UNTIL HE BUILDS A NEW NEST. T F P THE CARDS CAN TELL YOUR FORTUNE. University of Southern California Library
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Buckner, Kenneth L.
(author)
Core Title
An investigation of unfounded beliefs of eighth grade students.
Degree
Master of Science
Degree Program
Education,Educational Psychology
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
education, educational psychology,OAI-PMH Harvest
Format
masters theses
(aat)
Language
English
Contributor
Digitized by ProQuest
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Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c24-211989
Unique identifier
UC11279271
Identifier
EP49812.pdf (filename),usctheses-c24-211989 (legacy record id)
Legacy Identifier
EP49812.pdf
Dmrecord
211989
Document Type
Thesis
Format
masters theses (aat)
Rights
Buckner, Kenneth L.
Type
texts
Source
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
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The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...
Repository Name
University of Southern California Digital Library
Repository Location
USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA
Tags
education, educational psychology