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Techniques for teaching reading to primary mentally retarded children.
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Techniques for teaching reading to primary mentally retarded children.
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Content
TECHNIQUES FOR TEACHING READING TO PRIMARY
MENTALLY RETARDED CHILDREN
i
A Project
Presented to
the Faculty of the School of Education
The University of Southern California
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Master of Science in Education
by
Edna Armstrong Moore
June 1957
UMI Number: EP48874
All rights reserved
INFORMATION TO ALL USERS
The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted.
In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript
and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed,
a note will indicate the deletion.
Di&sertatior Publ sb*ng
UMI EP48874
Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author.
Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC.
All rights reserved. This work is protected against
unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code
ProQuest LLC.
789 East Eisenhower Parkway
P.O. Box 1346
Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346
Bd M
This project report, written under the direction
of the candidate’s adviser and approved by him,
has been presented to and accepted by the faculty
of the School of Education in partial fulfillment of
the requirements fo r the degree of M aster of
Science in Education.
A dviscr
Dean
TABLE OP CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I. THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED . . 1
The problem......................... 1
Statement of the problem........... 1
Importance of the study........... . 1
Delimitation of the problem....... 2
Definitions of terms u s e d ........... 3
Mentally retarded ..................... 3
Primary mentally retarded .............. 4
Special training ....................... 4
Reading readiness ..................... 4
Organization of the remainder of the project 4
II. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE............... 6
Literature related to the characteristics of
mentally retarded children ................ 6
Physical characteristics ............ . 6
Mental characteristics . . . .......... 8
Social and emotional characteristics ... 9
Literature related to the education of the
mentally retarded child ................ 11
Literature related to the need for a readi
ness program for mentally retarded children 13
Literature related tb^the techniques for
teaching reading to primary mentally retarded 18
i l l
CHAPTER
Experience charts ... ..................
| III. SUGGESTED READING METHODS FOR PRIMARY MENTALLY
I
RETARDED CHILDREN ..... ..................
Diagnosis of reading readiness ............
The Metropolitan Readiness Test ..........
The Gates Reading Readiness Tests ..........
j The Van Wagenen Reading Readiness Tests . . .
| Interest and motivation .......... .
i
j Recent reading procedures ..................
! Fernald-Keller Method ......................
Stage I .................................
!
! Stage II . ..............................
i
| Stage III................................
i
j Stage IV..................................
Context clues ...........................
Picture clues .........................
Phonetic analysis........ ................
Structural analysis ... ................
The silent-oral method ....................
The oral-silent method ...................
IV. GAMES, DEVICES AND OTHER ACTIVITIES ......
!
Games and devices .......................
Other activities .........................
V. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS .....................
PAGE
21
!
28 i
28 j
as
29
29
30
32
36
i
40
40
41
41
42
42
42
43
44
45
47
51
52
63
66
CHAPTER PAGE
Conclusions............................. 67
BIBLIOGRAPHY ................................... 68
I
I
j
! LIST OF FIGURES
NUMBER PAGE
Wheels or discs . .
... 55
2.
1
Wheels or discs . .
... 55
| 3.
Spin the Pointer . ... 58
! 4.
Wheel of Chance .
... 59
5.
Tachistoscope . . . ... 6o
6. Color game ........ ... 62
7-
Color game ........ ... 62
8. Animal game . . . ... 62
9.
Animal game . . . ... 62
10. Reverse side of card of color game . . ... 63
11. Reverse side of card of animal game . . ... 63
CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED
!
I The basic philosophy of education in the United
!
jStates has long been that all the children of all the !
people shall receive an education. This philosophy
includes the mentally retarded child. It is considered
vitally important that these pupils should be discovered
early and exposed to situations where they may develop any
potentialities that they may have for the benefit of soci-
| ety and themselves.
I. THE PROBLEM
Statement of the problem. The teaching of reading
has presented a problem to teachers of both normal and
I |
i mentally handicapped children. Method is of vital impor- 1
, tance in each reading program. It is the purpose of this
study to present to the teachers of mentally retarded
i children certain techniques, games, devices, and aetivi-
' ties which will enable them to formulate a workable pro-
i
j gram for presenting reading to these children.
i
J Importance of the study. The success of a reading
i program is dependent upon its method of presentation to
■
! the learner. The use of methods that have proved success-
i
j ful in the past, and also the security of having a
storehouse of many different ways to approach the teaching
of reading provides the teacher with a degree of confi-
.
dence which makes for success in the presentation of read
ing. Due to individual differences there is probably no
one method of teaching reading which is sufficient for all
i
the children for all occasions. Therefore, a variety of
methods and devices are important.
Reading forms a very important part of the life of
every individual. Even life itself is dependent upon
one’s facility with the subject. The ability to find
one’s way about a community, to the job, to the doctor, to
i
| church, and to furnish means of diversion are examples of
needs upon which the ability to read depends.
The limited capacity of the mentally retarded child
coupled with the limited time he has left for schooling
| does not lend itself to experimentation with a number of
i
| methods which may or may not prove successful. The child
has experienced failure in the first, second, and, in many
cases, the third grades. Thus, in actuality, his school
j time is cut short by two or two and one-half years. This
i
j time^ is usually further shortened by early dropping out ,
i |
'for marriage or from sheer discouragement. Therefore, i
j methods must be discovered which can be used to teach a
j child to read in the shortest time possible in order to
j equip him for life in an adult and complicated society.
It was with these facts in mind that this study was under
taken .
Delimitation of the problem. Only the most recent
methods of teaching reading, and methods which have been
used successfully with mentally retarded children were
surveyed in relation to this problem. The methods
described are determined by their use and discussion in
some of the more recent books, and deemed successful by
some of the well known authors of this period.
The study has been limited to primary children who
r
have been determined, by individual psychological examina- |
i
tion, to be mentally retarded.
II. DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED
Mentally retarded. In this study the term, men
tally retarded, is defined as set forth in the California
Education Code, as follows:
Mentally retarded minors are all minors of com
pulsory school age who because of retarded intel
lectual development, as determined by psychological
examination, are incapable of being educated profit
ably and efficiently through ordinary classroom
instruction; but who may be expected to benefit from
special educational facilities designed to make them
economically useful and socially adjusted.1
California State Department of Education, Califor
nia Education Code, Section 9801 (Sacramento: California
State Department of Education, 1955)> P.
| Primary mentally retarded. For the purpose of
this study the primary mentally retarded children are
those mentally retarded children with chronological ages
from eight to nine and one-half years.
j Special training. For the purpose of this study
!
I the term, special training, is defined as an educational
program designed to meet the needs and capacities of the
mentally retarded child; a program which is so adapted as
to secure a maximum development of the educational, eco
nomic, and social characteristics of the mentally retarded
child.
| Reading readiness. For the purpose of this study
the term reading readiness is defined as the period at
which a child is physically, mentally, socially, and emo-
i tionally prepared for systematic reading instruction.
i
III. ORGANIZATION OF THE REMAINDER OF THE PROJECT
! The present chapter has presented the problem and
i
|the importance of the study, also the delimitation and
definitions of terms used.
Chapter II presents a review of the literature
irelated to the retarded child’s readiness for reading, as
i
well as some techniques for teaching reading; with a
review of some of the characteristics of the mentally
I * 5
i
retarded.
Chapter III presents a review of the more recent
j methods of teaching reading to mentally retarded children.
I In Chapter IV are presented some games, devices,
I
j and activities which may be used to vitalize the teaching
of reading.
Finally, Chapter V presents a summary and some con
clusions drawn from the study.
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE
A study of the techniques for teaching reading to
mentally retarded children may be facilitated by reviewing
the characteristics of the mentally retarded child. A
familiarity with the opinions of authorities as to their
characteristics eliminates the elements of trial-and-error
with these children. This will, in turn, save much of the
children’s already limited time.
Readiness has often had the connotation of a stage
of preparation for an activity, occurring before the
activity is begun. Thus, reading readiness has been con
sidered the sole duty of the first grade teacher. This
chapter will delve into the literature on reading readiness
I as applied to the mentally retarded child with a survey of !
i I
t
the techniques of teaching reading.
I I. LITERATURE RELATED TO THE CHARACTERISTICS
!
I OF MENTALLY RETARDED CHILDREN
I i
! |
I
Physical characteristics. Authorities are not in
! complete agreement as to the characteristics of mentally
| retarded children. For example, Baker-*- has said that as
^Harry J. Baker, Introduction to the Exceptional
Child (New York: Macmillan Company, 1954j, pp. £$8-259.
, 7
I
!
I a group the mentally retarded children are of smaller
|stature than the average, with some correspondence between
!lowness in I. Q. and size. They tend to have more physi-
!
j cal deviations than the average as assymmetry of the head
i
and face, the head being either large or small, teeth
crowded and poorly formed, and ears of many different
j shapes. There is likely to be two or more of these ab-
j normalities per child, whereas normal children seldom have
jmore than one. Walking and talking are apt to be delayed
I in the mentally retarded child. Often, if any speech is
I
present, it is distorted and some may never learn to
talk.
Ingram2 refers to the physical development and
physical traits of the mentally retarded as closely resem
bling groups of normal children of corresponding chrono-
j logical ages. Their height and weight closely approxi-
| mate that of the normal children. Muscular control of
j limb is well developed. Walking, skipping, running, and
i jumping are done with ease, except in occasional cases of
especially inferior coordination. While Featherstone^
i
i
2Christine Ingram, Educating the Slow Learning
! Child (New York: The Ronald Press Company, 1953).» PP. 11-
IT.
^ 3
; William B. Featherstone, Teaching the Slow Learner
: (New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Col-
umbia University, 1932), p. 2.
; 8
points out that people differ in degree, not in kind; they
i w
' are all variants of one type. That they go through the
i
| same sequence of growth and development as others and will
i
| in time arrive at maturity. They will not, however, have
i
| reached the same level of performance as those with great
er native endowment.
Mental characteristics. On the mental characteris
tics of the mentally retarded the authorities are more
i
j nearly in agreement. Here it will be noted that the
I mental deviations are more pronounced than the physical.
i
i Baker lists the following mental characteristics unique to ;
I
the mentally retarded child:
They show a tendency to stereotyped answers
! by repeating the same response to different ques-
j tions; they lack powers of self-criticism; their
! powers of association are limited; they are unable
I to keep unusual instructions in mind, but return
to traditional methods; they fail to detect errors
and absurdities in statements and in commonplace
situations; they tend to have concrete abilities
rather than abstract; they have limited powers of
reasoning, visualization, and similar mental
traits.^
Kirk^ reports Cruikshank1s summary of the findings
of many authors as showing that the mentally retarded
j ^Baker, loc. cit.
^Samuel 0. Kirk and G. Orville Johnson, Educating
the Retarded Child (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Houghton
| Mifflin Company, 1951), PP. 278-279.
9
differ from the normal in the following ways:
(1) The mentally handicapped children do not
have the mental ability to grasp the advanced and
complicated concepts usually taught to normal
children in the advanced grades.
(2) It is more difficult for mentally handi
capped children to pick up basic principles and
concepts because of their poor insight and low
ability to generalize.
(3) There is probably less transfer among
mentally handicapped children than there is in
normal children.
(4) The mentally handicapped children have
less understanding of the processes that are used
in finding solutions to problems.
(5) When confronted with a problem, they are
unable to solve, mentally handicapped children are
more apt to guess, or give some unsuitable response.
Social and emotional characteristics. Socially,
the mentally retarded child has often faced the problem of
rejection, first, in the home, by other sisters and
brothers, and, in some cases, by the parents. Before
; entering school they have been made to feel that they are
I
I “queer” or ” dumb.1 1 When they arrive at school these
1
i
| feelings are further demonstrated by their classmates,
j There are created emotional problems, some of which are
l caused by the handicap and others of which stem from feel-
I ings of rejection. Featherstone, in his description of
i
! the slow learner, puts a finger on many of the problems as
well as the needs of the mentally retarded by stating: *
10
(l) Adequate food, clothing, shelter, rhythm
of activity, and rest.
j (2) Status needs of belonging, and affection,
I are no different from other children.
1
! (3) He requires the opportunity for increas-
! ing self-direction.
|
j (4) Contact and harmony with reality in order
| that he may have a rational basis for his behavior.
' 1
(5) To grow in self-realization, and percep
tion of selfhood.
(6) To understand and accept himself for what
he is.
(7) The same balance between success and
failure that all children need.6
Martens adequately describes the emotional experi- |
j
]ences of the mentally retarded as the ordinary human emo-
I tions. She states:
t
They have feelings, and their feelings are much more
like those of ordinary persons, apparently, than their
intellectual abilities are. They hunger and thirst
| just as others do; are made glad or sad, as their
; desires are gratified or not; are capable of affection,
j discouragement, and all the other emotional experi
ences common to man. These observations apply to
all above the extreme of idiocy, where mental life
is at a low infantile level.7
| ^Featherstone, op. cit., p. 4.
^Elsie H. Martens, Curriculum Adjustments for the
Mentally Retarded (Washington, D. C. Federal Security
, Agency, Bulletin No. 2, 1950), p. 6.
II. LITERATURE RELATED TO THE EDUCATION OP
THE MENTALLY RETARDED CHILD
j Pop more than a century efforts have been made to
I
! educate the mentally retarded child. Educators, psyeholo-
! i
I gists, sociologists, and doctors have been interested in >
this subject for many years. Studies have been made to
evolve ways in which the education of these children can
be accomplished to the best advantages of themselves and
society. Stress has been placed on the social develop
ment and fitness for life adjustment.
The present philosophy of education of the mentally
retarded is best expressed in the following statement from
the Los Angeles City School Instructional Guide for Teach- I
ers of Special Training Schools and Classes:
Education in the elementary grades is recommended
for all children who are able to profit from a regu- |
lar curriculum. Special education is recommended
for those children who because of physical and/or
mental handicaps are not able to profit from the
regular curriculum and who require special facilities
to meet their particular needs. The emphasis, how
ever, is upon the likenesses of handicapped children
! to normal children, rather than upon their differ-
1 ences from normal children.**
' 8
Los Angeles City Schools, Instructional Guide for
I Teachers of Special Training Classes and Schools (fios
Angeles: Los Angeles City Schools, Curriculum bivision,
1948), p. 1.
The Education Policies Commission^ has listed four
j objectives or educational purposes relative to exceptional
children, their membership in the family or community
I group, to his activities as a producer and consumer, and j
* t
i i
j to his life as a citizen. These four objectives arer j
i i
i
| (l) self-realization; (2) human relationship; (3) economic
1 efficiency; and (4) civic responsibility.
i
i Gratke has presented a Bill of Rights for the
Handicapped Child, which was drawn up by the White House
Conference on Child Care and Development which declares
that the handicapped child has a rightt
(1) To as vigorous a body as human skill
can give him.
(2) To an education so adapted to his handi
cap that he can be economically independent and
have the chance for the fullest life of which he
is capable.
t
! (3) To be brought up and educated by those 1
| who understand the nature of the burden he has
to bear, and who consider it a privilege to help
him bear it.
(4) To grow up in a world which does not set
him apart, which looks at him, not with scorn and
pity, or ridicule,— but which welcomes every child
which offers him identical privileges, and identi
cal responsibilities.
(5) To a life on which his handicap casts
no shadows, but which is full day-by-day with those
^National Education Association, Education for All i
American Children (Washington, D. C.: Educational Policies
Commission of the National Education Association, 1948),
p. 112.
13
things which make it worth while with comradeship,
love, work, play, laughter, and tears,— a life
in which these things bring continually increasing
growth, richness, release of energies, and joy in
achievement.10
To accomplish the objectives of all the various
agencies of education, there have been established insti
tutions of learning for the handicapped child. The first
effective institution was established for this purpose in
Providence, Rhode Island, in 1896. This was the first
public school in the United States for mentally retarded
children. The movement has progressed steadily since
this first attempt.
The primary class for mentally handicapped chil
dren is an attempt to modify the school program to such an
extent that they will learn to adjust to a school situa
tion in harmony with their low intellectual abilities.
III. LITERATURE RELATED TO THE NEED FOR A READINESS
PROGRAM FOR MENTALLY RETARDED CHILDREN
Experience has proved that when an activity is to
be undertaken, there must be a survey of one's readiness
for that activity. This survey often reveals a need for
preparation or readiness for the activity. This is no
^Juliette M. Gratke, Help Them Help Themselves
(Dallas, Texas: Texas Society for Crippled Children,
1947), p. 17.
| less true of reading.
| There are many factors upon which success in read-
I
| ing depends. Some of these are: chronological age, intel-j
I
ligence, language ability, visual and auditory perception, |
l
i
experiential background, and social and emotional matnri- j
11
ty. According to Tinker, a child is ready to read when
he has attained a certain stage of mental maturity, and
possesses a background of experience and personal and
j social adjustment which makes it possible for him to pro-
! gress at a normal rate in learning to read when exposed to
Harris expresses almost the same view as Tinker
when he says: j
Reading readiness is a state of general fitness
or maturity which, when reached, allows a child
to learn to read without excess difficulty. It
is not a unitary trait, but rather is a composite
of many different characteristics.12
Mentally retarded children are often deficient in
two or more of the above named factors. The intelli
gence is deficient at the outset; the language facility is
j
meager because of slowness in development and also due to
the limited background of experience. Social and emo
tional factors stemming from the mental handicap often
! ___________________
j 11Miles A. Tinker, Teaching of Elementary Reading
(New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1953}* p. 24.
1 2
Albert J. Harris, How to Increase Reading Ability
(New York: Longmans, Green and Company, 195*0 > P* 23*
contribute to the shortages in the other factors.
Adams1^ points out that when language ability is
lacking, specific emphasis must be placed upon first hand
experiences and conversations.
The question arises, is reading readiness limited
to beginning school or beginning reading? According to
Tinker, the concept of reading readiness implies that
at each stage of reading the child is prepared to carry
out the activities which will result in further success
in reading with understanding. All the factors which
influence reading readiness in the first grade are
operating at the higher levels.
Reading readiness is not limited to beginning
reading but must be employed at each level of attainment.
The fact that the mentally retarded child cannot read
after at least twelve or sixteen months of exposure to
it shows that there was no readiness for the process.
The teacher must begin to build background in the areas
which appear to be lacking.
Witty states:
The concept of readiness, first used in reference
/
13pay Adams, Educating America1s Children (New
York: The Ronald Press Company, 1946), p. 288.
■^Tinker, o£. cit., p. 37*
16
to the first stage of primary reading instruction
and later extended to include other subjects, has
been broadened to further encompass all age or
grade levels. This is a soundly conceived expan
sion of a significant educational principle.^5
This would seek to establish that reading readi-
j ness is not the concern of any one teacher alone, but of I
all who wish to produce pupils who have some facility
with the reading process and can be taught to read for
information and enjoyment.
To further pursue the subject of reading readi
ness, it seems expedient to quote Bond’s concepts upon
which readiness instruction should be based. These
include the following:
(1) All children need to learn to read.
(2) Reading growth is continuous.
(3) Reading growth starts early in the
child's intellectual career and continues as
long as he reads.
(4) Reading readiness is the concern of
all teachers at all levels of instruction.
(5) Readiness is complex, since it is
made up of many highly interrelated attributes.
(6) Children develop at all times and in
all characteristics at varying rates.
(7) At any level in school, the child
must be taken from where he is and developed
■^Paul Witty, Reading in Modern Education (Boston:
D. C. Heath and Company, 19^9)> p. 55•
17
from that point forward.
(8) Each new learning depends upon previous
learnings.
(9) Development should be neither unduly-
hurried nor allowed to lag.
(10) For the most part, readiness factors
are amenable to training.
(11) Physiological and mental capabilities
must be taken into consideration in formulating
an instructional p r o g r a m . ^
Emotional blocks against reading, which were
developed because of lack of ability to proceed at the
same rate as the normal must be overcome. Monroe^ says
that a child’s desire to read depends upon what his past
experiences with books have been. Since failure has
been the experience of these children, it must be immedi
ately replaced by some feeling of success. This involves
the process of adapting the instruction to the child
rather than the child to the curriculum. Russell has
phrased this very well when he stated that:
The important thing is not the mental age of
the child but the quality of teaching and instruc
tional materials, especially with reference to
their adaptation to the needs of the individual
child. The program, not the mental test score,
■ j £
Guy L. Bond and Eva Bond Wagner, Teaching the
Child to Read (Hew York: Macmillan Company, 1950)7 P» HO-
■^Marion Monroe, Growing Into Reading (New York:
Scott, Foresman and Acompany, 1951), P• 3l.
is the thing.1®
The mentally retarded child, when provided with
I the requisites described above and with the added ingre- j
! !
j dients of a happy and stimulating environment both at j
i |
school and at home as well can learn to read. Dolch has I
stated in his Methods in Reading that: /
i X
Reading is an adult accomplishment Let us
j develop children as children first and then let
the adult accomplishments come naturally and
slowly, knowing that they will develop rapidly
I when the children are ready for them ....
The emphasis on reading readiness is one first
way to insure to every child security in reading.
Success gives security. Children need the
drive and enthusiasm that comes from immediate t
and continued success. Challenge but not defeat.^-9 I
i i
< ;
i
I !
! IV. LITERATURE RELATED TO THE TECHNIQUES FOR j
I
TEACHING READING TO PRIMARY MENTALLY
RETARDED CHILDREN
! At the beginning of an exploration of the opinions
j
! of the authorities regarding the techniques to be
J employed in the teaching of reading, there appears to be
l
| a vast area of difference. Upon further exploration,
however, no wide differences, but a variance of opinions
as to the matters of time and place of presentation, is
1®David H. Russell, Children Learn to Read (Bos
ton: Ginn and Company, 19^-9 )> P« 125.
•^Edward w. Dolch, Methods in Reading (Champaign,
Illinois: The Garrard Press, 1955)/ P- 3-
found. Leary quite adequately expresses this view with
! the statement that:
Today the issue is not a controversy between
any two types of reading as it is a matter of
determining the proportion of each type that will
j , insure a balanced reading program .... The
| answer is not to be found in one position or the
| other, but rather in a middle ground somewhere
between two extremes.20
Many criteria have been presented for judging a
good reading program. One of the better ones is pre
sented by Whipple in her “Characteristics of a Sound
Reading Program,1 1 which states that the criteria for
judging a good reading program in basic reading are as
follows:
(1) It is based on the capacities and
abilities which the pupils possess.
(2) It is “made to measure" and provides
for the pupils1 present stature, as well as for
their future growth.
(3) It provides for continuous growth,
and avoids the stigma of failure.
(4) It provides for frequent evaluation.
(5) It provides for growth of pleasure in
reading.
(6) It stresses actual practice in reading.
(7) The class organization is flexible.
20Berniee Leary, “Current Issues Relating to Basic
Instruction in Reading," Recent Trends in Reading, Sup
plementary Educational Monograph Number 4$ (Chicago: Uni
versity of Chicago Press, 1939;> p. 37.
j (8) It is coordinated with other school
I activities.
(9) It is comprehensive and includes many-
different kinds of reading.21
Since the criteria as expressed by Whipple are,
! for the most part, a generally accepted program for read-
i
ing, then one of the problems of the teacher is to formu
late a workable program based on these principles. One
of the basic problems is to decide on a choice between
beginning methods. The gestalt psychologists have ad-
1
1
vanced the theory of the whole word method of perception
pp
as against the traditional method. Kirk points out
that when the child is first presented with a short sen
tence or phrase, which is based on his experience, he
probably learns the whole sentence, partly by memory and
partly by recognizing the configuration of the sentence.
Kirk breaks down this type of word or sentence reading as
having a division of three parts; (l) reading wholes; (2)
learning details; and (3) reading without awareness to
i detail.
i
| Harris seems to concur with the idea of whole
1
| perception in that he states;
2lQertrude Whipple, “Characteristics of a Sound
Reading Program,1 1 Forty-Eighth Yearbook of the National
' Society for the Study of Education, Part ll (Chicago:
‘ University of Chicago Press, 19^-9)> PP* 37-^3*
22
Samuel Kirk, Teaching Reading to Slow-Learning
Children (New York: Houghton-MIfflin Company, 19^-0), p. 7^*
The principle of starting with larger units
or wholes is in accord with sound psychological
principles. Young people are not analytical
in their perceptions. They respond to the
most obvious characteristics of the perceived
object .... The earlier* primitive form of
response is to the unanalyzed whole; perception
of detail; and the relationship of the whole to
the parts comes later.23
To illustrate further the general agreement among
pit
authorities on whole perception, Bond emphasizes the
recognition of words as wholes in the initial period of
reading, pointing out that it is detrimental to have the
children spell or sound out the words at this stage.
With the thought that the whole word method of
word recognition is probably the accepted method, among
recent authorities, of presenting reading to children,
the problem arises as to how these wholes shall be pre
sented. Some of the methods advocated by authorities
in presenting to children are experience charts, the
sentence method, story method and picture-dictionary
method.
Experience charts. The experience method has
been given much consideration by authorities in the
belief that children are more interested in things which J
^Harris, op. cit., p. 285.
2^Bond, et al, o£. cit., p. 189.
i 22
i
stem from their own experiences, and, therefore, will
listen more attentatively and grasp more readily.
Dolch2^ has stated, that the making of an experience
| chart, if properly managed, will do more than anything
j
j else to transform a collection of unrelated children into
!
a group with group feeling, group rules, and a group
leader in the teacher.
Kirk cites a combination of the story and experi
ence method for teaching the mentally retarded child. On
i
the basis of their immediate experiences the child should
j be stimulated to tell a story, describing some experi-
| ences which he has had. The teacher writes the sentence
on the board as the child'relates the experience, allow-
i
ing the children to read what she has written, and later
transferring the stories to tag board for re-reading and
additions at a future time. He cautions users of the
experience method to see thatt
(1) Stories contain short sentences
(2) Sentences should be derived from
children1s immediate experiences.
(3) Paragraphs, at the beginning of train
ing, should contain only three or four sentences;
^Edward w. Dolch, Teaching Primary Reading
(Champaign, Illinois: The Garrard Press, 1950), p. 153.
increase both length of sentences and paragraphs
later.
I
j (4) Words should be introduced that will i
[ appear later in book reading.26 j
* j
| Since many authorities are in agreement on the j
i
i j
j experience chart, there seems to be an area of disagree- I
I j
ment on the inclusion of the language of the text in
experience charts. Russell seems to agree with Kirk on
this issue when, referring to experience charts, he
states that:
During this time the teacher has been careful
! to restrict the vocabulary used in the charts
; and to use words which will appear in the pre-
I primer. At the same time, she has encouraged
the children to acquire specific abilities in j
word recognition which they will develop further j
in the initial reading stage.27
Betts^ stresses reading for meaning and in this
connection states that, to read for meaning, the pupils
must have achieved the prerequisites for initial reading
instruction; that is, they must have sufficient maturity
in dealing with experience by means of language to see
the relationship between words and experience. To read
for meaning the pupils must have access to material that
2^Kirk, o£. cit., p. 87.
! 2^David Russell, Children Learn to Read (Boston:
j Ginn and Company, 1949) ,~"pT~T35T
I 28
1 Emmett A. Betts, Foundations of Reading Instruc
tion (New York: American Book Company, 1950)> p. 3^4.
1
24
! is not only within their experience and interests, but
i
j also rich enough in concepts to challenge their attention.
Dolch,^9 on the other hand, is opposed to the
inclusion of too much vocabulary of the text because he
feels that in order to include pre-primer vocabulary in
experience charts one is likely to lose some things which
are much more valuable. Bond seems to support Dolch in
this view when he stated:
It is not necessary to juggle the stories
so that the words which the children will find
later in their pre-primers will be introduced.
Chart stories are simply meant to introduce
reading through the avenue of thought, experi
ence, and understanding .... The true
reading attitude is one of wanting to find out
something and this requires fresh content.30
In any initiation of experience chart reading, it
i
i seems wise to call attention to the following items:
! (1) Vocabulary
I (2) Sentence structure
j (3) Sentence length
j (4) Vocabulary repetition
(3) Materials prepared by. teachers and
pupils cooperatively
Oral reading versus silent reading. In the last
29Dolch, op. cit., p. 158.
3C>Bond, op. cit., p. 166.
25
decade there has been some controversy as to the values
of, and places of, oral and silent reading in the reading
program. In the early years of teaching reading the all
31 t
oral method was used to a large extent. Harris*' refers
to McDade, an early advocate of the silent reading tech
nique, as basing his criticism of the oral method on the
premise that meaning should be associated with the printed
word through meaningful responses, and that the process
of looking at a word, saying it, and appreciating its
meaning is unnecessarily slow and wasteful.
32
TinkerJ has summarized the objections of many
authorities to oral reading as being the (l) emphases
which encourage oral reading and vocalization in any and
all occasions, (2) forcing a child to read aloud in a
group situation when inadequately prepared, (3) an empha
sis upon mechanical perfection in word calling and phras-
!
ing to the sacrifice of adequate comprehension, and
thought-getting by the reader.
Many advocates of reading silently hold that since
adults read silently, children should by the same token
!
be taught to read silently from the very beginning,
^^arris, o£. cit., p. 72.
32Miles A. Tinker, Teaching Elementary Reading
(Mew York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1952), p. 103.
reasoning that the way to teach silent reading is to have
i
1 the children read silently. The critics, however, point
up the fact that there may, in actuality, be no silent
reading; that reading may be inaudible and at the same
i
i
| time the reader is thinking sound and to all practical
purposes might as well, or better, be reading aloud.
Adams^ is Qf the opinion that since the easiest
transition from talking aloud is to reading aloud, chil
dren in the first year should do a great deal of oral
1 reading. However, it is wise even at this level to have
!
| children read a sentence through silently in a sort of
preliminary tour before trying it orally. From this
view, it is obvious that Adams technically is an advocate
of silent reading, followed by oral reading.
34
Dolch outlines three points assumed by the pro
ponents of silent reading, namely:
(1) The children know all the old words.
(2) They learn the new words.
(3) They are able to use word attack in
case of necessity.
In opposition to the above assumptions Dolch^
33Fay Adams et al, Teaching the Child to Head (New
; York: The Ronald Press, 19^9)/ p.
! ^Edward Dolch, Methods in Reading (Champaign, II-
; linois: The Garrard Press, 1955), p. 105-
35
Dolch, op. cit., p. 105.
27
thinks that if oral reading is to be done anyway, then
have it done ” ... where it does some good, before mis
takes are made.” In this regard, he encourages having
the material read orally first, and then have it read a
number of times silently for thought, through questioning,
preparation for dramatizations, and other devices.
The four methods discussed seem to have merit for
particular purposes. The concensus seems to be that no
! one method can be said to be the method of teaching read-
i
! ing, but a combination of methods and the proper applica-
i
j tion of the method at the necessary time, and in the
!
| proper place is of paramount importance.
i
CHAPTER III
SUGGESTED READING METHODS FOR PRIMARY MENTALLY
RETARDED CHILDREN
I. DIAGNOSIS OF READINESS
I
It has been observed that readiness for reading is
an important factor of the reading process. It is
necessary to build up a sight vocabulary and to acquire a
background of first hand experiences and also a physical
readiness for reading.
I
| One of the first things the teacher is interested
in knowing is the intelligence or learning ability of the
child. Since one of the legal requirements for placing
a child in a classroom for special training is an indi-
j vidual intelligence test, the teacher of the mentally
i
retarded child already has available information regard
ing the intelligence of the child. Some other factors
for determining readiness are: appraisal through the use
| of standardized reading readiness tests, and through the
i
use of informal inventories to assist in the formation of
teacher judgment of readiness, coupled with a complete
physical examination including visual and auditory exami-
j nations.
| Some of the important reading readiness tests
i
which are considered by authorities to be adaptable for
■ “ ' 29 !
I
use with mentally retarded children are discussed in
this chapter.
j
j The Metropolitan Readiness Test. This test as
| described by Harris^ is a group test used to measure the
i
j ability of the child to perceive similarities and differ-
j ences, to copy visual forms, understand words, understand
i .-.i
! sentences and range of information. This test will not, !
I
of course, replace the individual test, but is a good
group test for assisting in determining readiness.
| The Gates Reading Readiness Tests. According to j
i
Tinker^T these tests are usually given to first grade
children. They consist of five sub-tests including the
followings (l) picture directions in which oral direc
tions are given by the examiner directing the children to
make designated marks on the pictures; (2) word matching !
)
! in which four words are presented in an oblong area (the
i .
| two words which are alike must be connected by a line);
j (3) word card matching test, in which sets of four words
! are listed in a test sheet (the examiner presents, for j
five seconds, one word on a card and directs the child to
try to find the word presented among the four); (4)
| ^Harris, cit., p. 40.
^Tinker, op. cit., pp. 44-45.
rhyming test in which the children are given orally the x
names of four pictures in a test (the examiner then gives
\ 1
a word that rhymes with the name of one of the four pic-
| tures which the child marks); (5) reading letters and
i numbers (this phase of the Gates Reading Readiness Test is
an individual one in which the child is asked to read as
many letters and digits as he can,--a capital alphabet, a
lower case alphabet, and digits from zero to nine are
used.)- This test seems to be considered by investigators
as one of the best reading readiness tests available at
this time. It must be emphasized that the same norms
established for these tests should not be applied to the
mentally retarded child, but should be based on the M. A.
of these children instead of the C. A.
The limited availability of trained psychologists
for giving individual tests has often presented a problem
in determining readiness for reading, probably, accounting
for many pupils being placed in actual reading situations
before they are ready.
The Van Wagenen Reading Readiness Tests.These
are individual tests which may be given by the teacher.
They consist of two equivalent forms. There are six
^Harris, o£. cit., p. 4l.
31
tests covering the following items: (l) range of informa
tion, (2) understanding of logical relationships, (3)
i
vocabulary memory span for sentences, (4) discrimination '
| of like and unlike words, and (5) ability to learn word ;
! j
j forms. These tests resemble the individual intelligence j
i ;
tests. They are particularly good for measuring language
background as it relates to reading.
i
! The agreement among investigators that teacher
i
1 observation is an important element in the appraisal of
reading readiness is rather general. Hester states:
Teacher judgment should play an important role
in appraising the child’s readiness for reading
at all levels .... At no time should the
I results of formal tests be used in the determina
tion of readiness without the consideration of
: informal systematic observations made by the class
room teacher.39
In view of the importance of the teacher’s judg
ment in reading readiness, many suggestions have been
advanced to help facilitate this process. Several in
formal inventory forms have been given to aid the teacher
i in having certain bases for evaluation and a means of
j
re-evaluation from time to time. Some observations may
have been inaccurate. The general outline of many
informal investories included space for an evaluation of:
^Kathleen Hester, Teaching Every Child to Read
(New York: Harper Brothers Publishers, 1955)/ P. 7b.
32
1. Mental ability;
i a. Alertness
b. Curiosity
c. Attentiveness
I
d. Visual perception
e. Auditory perception
2. Physical characteristics;
a. General health
b. Vision
c. Hearing
d. Speech
3. Social and emotional qualities
!
&. Experience;
a. Cultural level of home
b. Richness of experience
5. Language ability
6. Interests
i
The results of the intelligence tests, standard
ized readiness tests, and informal inventories used by
the teacher, should be combined and used as a basis for
i 9
j determining readiness for reading.
i
| II. INTEREST AND MOTIVATION
I
j The teacher of the mentally retarded child
probably experiences some difficulty in creating an
33
interest in reading due to his previous experiences of
failure and frustration. It has been found that most
/ !
children learn more rapidly if the materials are meaning-j
! ful and interesting to them. The problem of the teacher*
j !
| is to explore the interests of the child and capitalize I
i ;
j upon and develop them in every possible way, j
| Gates has concluded from his study of the reading
I interests of the mentally normal children that those of
the mentally retarded children are basically the same.
i
< !
■ He has listed the following elements as contributing i
I
i most to the children's interests in reading: j
i i
: 1. Surprise. The unexpected and unfore-
i seen events* happenings* conclusions* and out- !
! comes. i
i I
{ |
2. Liveliness. Action* movement and
I "something doing.1 1
i
3. Animalness. Stories which present
things animals do;their acts* characteristics*
and experiences.
j 4. Conversation. A story which includes
j dialogue.
! 5. Humor. A story which includes humor
| from the child's point of view.
i j
6. Plot. !
7. Suitability. A story that comes within j
! the range of experience of the children. :
i
! Difficulty. Stories which^are not too
I difficult in vocabulary and meaning.
^°Arthur I, Gates* Interest and Ability in Read
ing (New York: Macmillan Company* 1$3&) * P- 74.
I
I
I
The factors which seek to decrease interest in
| reading as listed by Gates^1 are: (l) difficulty of j
material; (2) moralizing in a story; and (3) adult humor, j
i
The most potent factor in creating interest for the men- j
tally retarded child is success in reading. The materi
als, he emphasizes, should be easy enough for the child to
read and yet contain sufficient difficulty to require the
child to put forth his best effort and promote learning.
Tinker, writing of reading interests and tastes,
! states that:
i
| Interest may be acquired at any level of
j maturity...............may grow in intensity and
breadth, or . . . may grow or fade and disappear
.... It is necessary to maintain interest
at a high level so that pupils desire to learn
what is being taught, for example, make intelli
gent use of context in word identification. This
may be achieved by such means as adjustment of
teaching to meet pupil needs, clarification of
purposes, variation in methods of presentation,
! or organization of the lesson, and teacher en
thusiasm.^-2 I
i
i i
i Interest can often be considered as having two
| facets,— one, interest in the reading process, and also
interest in the type of reading material. For the type
of reading material, the subject which is of interest to
! the child, which is, for the most part, drawn from his own
in
xGates, o£. cit., p. 90.
^2Tinker, op. cit., p. 265.
35
j
! experiences. For children of the ages of the primary
!
mentally retarded, interests are centered around home and
i
| community, animals, transportation, and such emotional
!
j subjects affected by the child’s needs as: security,
j play, love, and achievement.
I Woodruffhas referred to this facet of the
child’s personality as having three distinct elements:
(l) consisting of what the child wants as based on his
values and the goals toward which he is endeavoring to
move; (2) his plans for obtaining his wants, or attaining
his desired goals based on his concepts of how he must
react to promote the desired effects, propelled by the
underlying drives as affected by his individual needs;
(3) his interests and preferences for activities.
! To limit the child’s reading altogether to his
interests, which in many withdrawn children are often
. limited, would be failing the child. The alert teacher
j through careful guidance and motivation will be able to
i
i create an interest in other fields. This can be accom-
j plished through stimulating environments, centers of
j interest, new and unusual books, and even comic books,
j As a basis for motivating a reading lesson, Adams has
^Asahel d. Woodruff, The Psychology of Teaching
(New York: Longmans, Green & Company, Inc., 1951)> p.
329.
“ 36 1
i
four principles for presenting the lesson;
(1) There should be an interesting intro
duction before the actual reading begins. By j
relating the material to the child’s experience,
by stimulating his curiosity, or by telling a
part of the story, his interest and readiness
are increased. 1
(2) The child should read with a definite j
perpose in mind; to solve a problem, to answer ;
a question, or to prepare for a dramatization. |
i
(3) Special attention should be given to
difficult and new words and phrases. Difficult
and new words are often developed at the beginning
of the lesson by looking at illustrations or by
discussion. Drill on words or phrases usually
comes at the end of the period, after the teacher
has discovered other words which puzzle the
children.
(4) There should be provisions for indi
vidual children help. Usually each child in
the reading group is asked to read silently to
answer a question, and helps each child with diffi- i
cult words. This silent reading should precede
oral reading because it improves the quality of
the oral reading and because it recognizes the
importance of self-activity in learning. ^
III. REGENT READING PROCEDURES
The process of reading has been described by some
authors as being an interesting, but often a difficult
process. It has been pointed out that before a child j
can be expected to read he must have a physical, mental, !
i
social, and emotional readiness for reading. If either
44
Pay Adams, op. cit., p. 300.
: 37
i
is lacking, steps should be undertaken immediately to
remedy them where possible. Readiness is not generally
considered a native capacity, but must be cultivated.
i i
. Other factors which affect reading have been dis- j
| I
j cussed. The elements of interest and motivation, readi-|
i
ness, and the proper techniques can stimulate a child to
learn to read while, at the same time, being handicapped
by limited native capacity.
Assuming that readiness has been diagnosed,
i
i developed, and determined, it will be the aim of this
I
| part of this project to suggest some techniques which may
be used with primary mentally retarded children.
One of the first steps is to build a sight vocab-
j ulary upon which to establish a basis to read. With
i many children this process has probably begun during the
I readiness program while using experience charts for
i
| language development. The experience charts may be
converted gradually to the reading-type by using words
| from the child's own stories. These words may show how
! words differ in general configuration and detail. The
j charts from experiences are easily adapted to the proc-
i
j ess of determining details and general configuration
I
I because they present a variety of words with a variety
f i
38
of shapes. Gagg^ points out that the traditional
approach of word families is, in many cases, more diffi
cult for the child than a number of unrelated words. He
uses, for example, the "at" family with such words as:
cat, rat, sat, mat, and vat, all having the same general
characteristics and then, by contrast, he presents the
words: pig, engine, little, box, elephant, and aeroplane.
He calls attention to the individual shapes and lengths.
Besides being full of interest for the child, Gagg says
that:
We are, of course, so bogged down by tradition
that we find it difficult to drag our minds away
from the old three-letter "primer.” And though
many teachers find it difficult to believe, varied
and interesting words,— however long,— are much
more easily remembered by most children than
duller.three-letter words which look so much
alike.
Fernald^ supports Gagg in his thesis by stating
that her own studies have shown that the longer, more
difficult words are actually easier to recognize on later
presentation after the child has written them than
easier shorter ones. She illustrates this by using a
c. Gagg and M. E. Gagg, Teaching Children to
Read (London: Newnes Educational Publishing Company, Ltd.,
1955), P. 15.
^ Ibid.
^7Grace M. Pernaldj Remedial Techniques in Basic
School Subjects (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.
i^3), p“ h.
I community as an example, suggesting that it is much
easier to identify a large house of some individual
color and architecture in a row of either large or small
houses on a street than it is to recognize a small house
i
I in a row of other small houses of similar appearance.
I
! Garter and McGinnis have adequately summarized
these important points of our discussion by offering the
following suggestions that would be useful in helping the
]
| child to:
»
| 1. Develop an interest in and readiness
j for books.
t
i
I 2. Realize that words have useful meanings.
3. React to a word as a unit or a whole.
4. Acquire basic sight words.
5. Develop background and mental content
| through activities, experiences, and discussion.
6. Interpret pictures in verbal statements
and story.
7. Develop left-to-right sequence of
words in lines.
j 8. Acquire initial forms of study habits.
9. Use and adequately take care of books.
10. Read with meaning so as to appreciate
the story as a whole.48
j 48jjomer ^ Carter and Dorothy J. McGinnis, Learn-
; ing to Read (New York: McGraw Hill Book Company, Inc.,
! 1953), P. 125.
I
! Many normal children may be able to acquire the
i
I skills cited above with a minimum of further instruction
I
| or techniques. Those who are deeply involved mentally
! will need more definite techniques in word recognition.
!
| There have been many techniques offered by authorities
i
i
for assisting these boys and girls in accomplishing a
greater degree of proficiency in the field of reading.
One of the variations of the kinesthetic method of word
recognition is the Fernald-Keller method which has been
j found successful with slow-learning children.
! Fernald-Keller Method. The Fernald-Keller tech
nique is not a new one but has been used in some form
dating back to Plato [427-347 B.C.]. It has since been
revived from time to time. The now-used Fernald-Keller
method begun in 1921 is a technique described by Grace
Fernald^ as being divided into four stages, i. e.,
Stage I. The child learns by tracing the word,
j He is led to recognize that he has a problem in reading
i
j and wants to do something about it. He is told to give
! the instructor any word which he wishes to learn and she,
in turn, writes the word with a crayola on plain paper,
i
| using manuscript or cursive, whichever is being used by
!
i
i ^Grace Fernald, Remedial Techniques in Basic
i School Subjects, op. cit., pp. 33-51- ~
41
the child in the writing he performs ordinarily. ' The
child traces the word with his finger in direct contact
with the paper, saying each part of the word as he traces
it, and repeating the process as many times as necessary
in order to write the word without looking at the copy.
He writes the word once on scrap paper and again in his
story. The story is typed for him, usually within
twenty-four hours, and he reads it in print. Fernald
emphasizes that finger contact is important in tracing;
that the child always writes the word without looking at
the copy; that the word should always be written as a
unit; and that words should always be used in context.
Stage II. The child develops the ability to
learn any new word by simply looking at it in script,
saying it over to himself as he looks at it, and then
writing it. The same technique is followed as for Stage
I, except that tracing is no longer necessary, but the
child looks at the word and proceeds with the succeeding
steps.
Stage III. Recognition in print. Here the
word is written on a card in print and the child is able
to learn the word from the printed symbol, by looking at
it and saying it to himself before he writes it. At
this stage he is also introduced to book reading and
allowed to read as often and as much as he likes while
42
I
I
being told the words he does not know and later going
through Stages I, II and III, with the unknown words.
i
I Stage IT. Word analysis. This is the ability of
! the child to recognize new words from their similarity to
i |
j words or parts of words he has already learned. Fernald
i
notes that the child Is never to be read to, but must do
* all of his own reading and that the child is never made to
sound the word when he is reading, nor is it sounded out
»
i
■ by the teacher.
j A file of words is kept by the child and used in
! his written work from time to time. With this method
1
j there is a greater variety of words in the child’s file
i I
| than he would ordinarily get from his reading. These !
! i
words are taken directly from his experiences and there-
i
i fore have more meaning for the child. This technique
!
I serves as a means to strengthen visual discrimination and
| may well be used with the technique of configuration and
! detail.
i
i
I Context clues. This form of word recognition is
m u u n i B i i ■ ■ ■ i « - — i> i« i >ii i
I
one of the most widely used techniques. Many children
have learned this method without having had any instrue-
| tion by the teacher. The student in reading a sentence
! discovers a word which he does not recognize. He learns
! the identity of the word by associating it with the other
i
words in the sentence. One technique which has seemed
43
to prove successful is to have the student read the
sentence calling the unknown word "blank" and continuing
to the end of the sentence. By the time he reaches the
end of the sentence the word which he has called "blank" j
becomes apparent. For example, the child reads: "Sally !
i
went into the "blank" to get her hat." Sally either
went into the house, or, Sally went into the room to get
her hat. Her training in the use of picture clues will
reveal to her which of the two generalizations is
correct.
Picture clues. The technique of picture clues is j
another prevalent form of word recognition. The child j
is able to recognize the unknown word by glancing at the j
pictures accompanying the reading selection. As an il
lustration: the picture above the selection may show Skip
jumping for a ball. The sentences may read: "Get the
ball, Skip. Get the ball." The unrecognized word in
this picture might be "ball." One glance at the picture
and the child should be able to conclude that Ted wants
Skip to get the "ball." These clues may be obtained in
such rapid sweeps that the smooth reading of the sentence
is uninterrupted.
Phonetic analysis. Another basis for the prompt
recognition of a word is through phonetic analysis.
; 44
' Reference is here made to the fact that many investigat-
(
! ors are in agreement that there should be a development
| of a substantial sight vocabulary, and also the estab-
! lishment of the whole word technique before one begins
; to break up words into smaller parts. Phonetic analysis
| requires the learner to develop a sounding technique j
| j
wherein the initial consonant sounds and final consonant j
sounds are given attention. Long and short vowel I
sounds, certain blends, and diphthongs are also studied.
!
With the more immature and slow-learning children,
|
| a technical study of these elements is not recommended.
| However, these children must have the security of some
i
j methods of word attack. Tinker says that:
I i
1 For the majority of reading disability cases, j
j phonic instruction is more effective when used
i as a supplement to other procedures than when it
j is made the major method of word attack.50
j
j Structural analysis. This method, while a very
i
important one, has been considered last as a word recog-
! nition technique because it has been found by many
i
authors to be a difficult one for slow-learning or re-
i
: tarded children to comprehend. In this method is in-
| volved the location by the reader of certain parts of
! words which make up meaning units. Usually the child
5°Tinker, op. cit., p. 333.
' 45
! takes cognizance of the prefixes, suffixes, and root words
j giving the sounds by syllables. With the primary retard
ed child this process will probably be limited to plurals
j of nouns, such as: £, or es; verb endings as:,ed, ing, or
I ly; and possibly a few compound words as: milkman, post-
j
j
man, or mailman.
The process of structural analysis is usually
used in conjunction with phonetic analysis. They are so
closely related that one is seldom used without the other.
The mentally retarded child must be provided with
many methods of word attack so that if one method does not
j work for him, he has another at his command. This pre
vents discouragement, and produces one of the most impor
tant elements necessary to producing a good reader,--the
element of success.
Gray^-*- states that if one is to perceive the words
I
i in reading accurately, he needs to have such aids as:
i (l) meaning clues from the context; (2) the form or ap-
i
1 pearance of a word; (3) structural analysis; (4) phonetic
I analysis; and (5) the dictionary.
i i
| II. THE SILENT-ORAL METHOD
l
i
| The silent-oral method is usually composed of the
j
^ W i l l i a m g. Gray, On Their Own in Reading (New
j York: Scott, Foresman and .Company, 194bj, pp. 40-48.
|
reading of experience charts, textbook assignments, stor-
i
ies, or other selections silently in order to get the
thought, and to be prepared for reading it orally at a
i later time. Some authorities have opposed the use of
this method even with normal children. Their theory is
that school books are made harder for each successive year I
and that the child of average ability meets some words
with which he is not familiar on almost every page. Con-
»
J sidering this fact to be true, then the wisdom of encourag-
J ing reading silently first and then orally is question-
j able. Dolch^2 states that since the selection is going
to be read aloud, then why not have it read ” ...
orally, where it does some good, before mistakes are
made.1 1
! RR
Dolch^-* also reminds the reader that textbooks are
i ■
■ usually planned and prepared for the good reader, and thatj
t
they do not fit the poor reader. The assumption is that
the reader remembers all of the sight words that he is
j supposed to have learned from previous books in previous
i years; that the child has learned the new words from pre-
i
; reading experiences; or that they may be able to get the
, new words from the context clues. It is also assumed
j I
^2Dolch, op. cit., p. 105.
53|)olch, op. cit., p. 143.
47
that the reader has a sufficient background of word attack
techniques. While these assumptions may be partially
true of normal children, they are not applicable to the
I poor readers.
i
j Since the mentally retarded child has failed in
reading, he, therefore, encounters many words which he does
not recognize. The Silent-Oral Method does not appear to
be adaptable to the needs of the mentally retarded child.
III. THE ORAL-SILENT METHOD
| Featherstone^ in discussing the slow-learner has
stated that for the greater part of the time during the
first three or four years oral reading is to be preferred
to silent reading.
This would indicate a continuation of the initial
oral language stage from which the slow-learners are not
: far removed. Mentally retarded children are not, usually,
i
j easily adaptable to change. Poor habits once established
jwith them are.difficult to overcome. Oral reading enables
' the teacher to check closely on the pupils1 progress as
i
well as on faulty methods of word attack.
Further, to support the theory of oral reading for
I
i
i ^ Peatherstone, Teaching the Slow Learner, op. cit.,
j p. 124.
48!
■ I
! these children, Kirk found that it is difficult for the j
i i
i mentally normal children to learn to read without first :
i
! learning orally. He suggests a continuation of oral read-
!
j ing longer than is usually allowed with the normal child:
j 1. Studies of eye movements in oral and j
I silent reading found that during the initial j
i stages of reading there are more fixations per ;
| line in silent reading than in oral reading.
I
! ' 2. That the children learn to read first
i through the auditory sense, and that they learn ,
more rapidly than when they do not articulate.55 i
j With the mentally retarded accuracy rather than
| speed has been stressed by the authorities, and reading
| aloud to the teacher provides a test for accuracy. Also,
j it provides an opportunity to establish better pronuncia-
I
| tion and enunciation of the English language. Addition-
I
! ally, it serves as a basis for diagnosis of comprehension
| by the teacher listening to the intonation of the voice
and noting the grouping of words with regard to commas,
: periods, questions and interjections.
| Adams56 feels that because oral reading is a symp- I
I j
' tom of the childfs ability in silent reading, the teacher
should not leave the children to do much independent
silent reading until she knows that they can easily read
55icirk, op. cit., p. 124.
56Fay Adams et al, Teaching Children to Read, op.
cit., p. 212.
orally certain types of matter of appropriate difficulty. |
j
Dolch^ refers to several types of oral reading:
(l) ”Embarrassed” oral reading - reading before an unrecep-
t
i
tive, unsympathetic audience a selection for which he is !
j
unprepared. (2) Pleasure oral reading - pleasure in hear- |
ing the sound of onefs own voice and the probable satisfac-!
i
tion of showing that he can really read the passage. (3)
Oral reading for word telling - this technique is a means
of teaching word recognition, which, theoretically, should
not exist but does in many cases. (4) Check oral reading -
to know what children especially those in the primary
i
grades are doing. Where are they looking? What words they!
are calling, or miscalling, and, if they are reading with j
comprehension. (5) Oral reading to yourself, - thinking
the sounds, whether they are said audibly or not,— this he
i
states, is not true silent reading. (6) Correction oral |
reading - usually, this is used to correct errors which
were made while, supposedly, reading silently. (7) Audi
ence oral reading - this is, perhaps, a prepared perfor
mance, selected and read by the reader and practiced over
and over again to himself or a trial audience for presenta
tion before a group who listens with books closed,— and i
57Dolch, Methods in Reading, op. cit., pp. 128-133.
' looking at the reader.
, To say that silent reading is of no value to the
mentally retarded child would be misleading and a mis
statement of the facts. Silent reading is the ultimate
goal of all good readers. Thus, although, it is true
i
| that many investigators advocate oral reading first, it
| does not follow that there will be no silent reading at
| that particular time or in that lesson. The majority of
j authors advocate having either a good reader read the
selection orally to give the poor readers the names of the
; new words or having the poor reader read orally with the
j
I teacher immediately supplying the unknown word. There
!
i
| must be then many opportunities for re-reading silently.
■ Through careful questioning by the teacher the child is
encouraged to find out certain information about the sub-
i
■ ject to prove a point, to correct a false generalization,
to prepare for a dramatization, or some other activity.
CHAPTER IV
GAMES, DEVICES AND OTHER
ACTIVITIES
The powers of the mentally retarded child to gener-
| alize, or to make inferences in his reading is usually
weak* He often fails to see the humorous side of a
story because of his inability to read with understand
ing. Therefore, he is easily discouraged, and often
restless. It is necessary to present reading to him in
a variety of ways in order to maintain his interest in
learning. To this end, games, devices, and other activ-
i
| ities have been found stimulating.
i
Russell and Karp offer some hints on the use of
i
1 sueh devices and materials as follows:
i
I (l) The reading games and devices are i
intended to supplement, not replace, work with
I readers and other books.
i (2) The materials are valuable in contribut-
! ing variety and fun to a well-rounded reading
| program.
!
(3) A particular activity should be chosen,
not at random, but because it will help an indi
vidual child or group.
(4) Many of the activities may be adapted
to the needs of a child or group by changing the
vocabulary or some rules of the game.
(5) Adaptation rather than adoption of the
devices should be the rule.
52
(6) The equipment for some of the activities
may be placed from time to time on a shelf of read
ing games with which the children may work in their
free time.
(7) The new reading games should be introduced
to the children so they will know how the games will
help their reading, and so they can use them singly,
in pairs, or in small groups without direct teacher
guidance.
(8) The reading activities should be used to
provide self-competition rather than competition
between individuals of varied abilities.
(9) Observation of the child’s use of the
reading devices may be helpful to the teacher in
diagnosing difficulties.
(10) The more advanced activities may be help
ful in developing good study habits and skills.5o
I. GAMES AND DEVICES
(1) Duplicate word cards can be used by a
couple of children to play “Snap.1 1 The appropriate
word should be said each time a card is laid down,
with the addition of "Snap” for a "pair.”59
(2) Matching cards - self-corrective. There
are two cards, one with the picture and the other with
the appropriate word; when the word is fitted to the pic
ture, it "belongs," jig-saw fashion. There will be
guessing, but the children will be required to read the
^ David H. Russell and Etta E. Karp, Reading Aids
Through the Grades (New York: Bureau of Pub1icat ions,
Teachers College, Columbia University, 1955)> P* 5.
59j. c. Gagg and M. E. Gagg, Teaching Children to
Read (London: Newnes Educational Publishing Company, Ltd.,
195?), PP. 37-39.
word to each other, or to the teacher.
(3) Sentence making. Separate words are cut out
from a sentence; put them together again to make the
I
| sentence, and then read. They can be linked with a
picture first, as a picture of a "sail boat” with the
to separate words and re-assembled for reading. Later
the sentence will be used without the picture.9
which words have been pasted or inserted into slits.
The teacher has word cards which he or a pupil reads
aloud. As the word is read aloud, the child who has the
word on his card raises his hand, calls the word, and
points to it on his card. If he gets it right, he gets
the word card to place over the appropriate word. The
, one who first covers five consecutive words in any
direction wins the game.
of the letters in the word is changed each time, making
a series of words, as: his - him - ham - ram - ran - run.
Later the game can also be placed with changing of two-
' ®pook, spoke, broke, et cetera. This provides a welcome
i
| change from the monotony of word families.
sentence, ”This is a boat.” This sentence can be cut in-
(4) Word-0. Each child has a Bingo card on
(5) This to That. Starting with one word, one
I letter combinations, as: sheep - sheet - shoot, shook,
6oIbld
’ 54]
(6) Rhyme making. Lines from several verses may
be printed on separate strips. The child is asked to
pick out all the lines which end in the same sound and
V
assemble them into a little poem. High poetic standards
I
are not necessary. 1 I
i
(7) Wheels or discs may be cut from oak tag
using two discs for each device. Root words are placed
on the lower disc; an opening is cut on the top disc to
show the root word, and the suffixes £S, ed, ing, er,
and est are placed near the opening on the top card so
as to make a completed word variation. See Figures 1
and 2 on page 55* A variety of these cards may be |
i
f. p 1
made using different blends. ^ j
(8) I Know It. Print a word on each card in a
deck. Any number of cards may be used. The word list
from one of the basic pre-primers may be used. Two to
six players may participate at one time. The deck of
cards is shuffled and the entire deck placed in the
center of a table, face down. The first player turns
over a card. He reads the word. If the word is read j
i
correctly, he places it face up in front of him to begin
^Harris, op. cit., pp. 321-324.
62william Kottmeyer, Handbook for Remedial Reading
(St. Louis: Webster Publishing Company, 1947)s P» "&8.
55
cdil 5
Fig. 1.
Pig. 2
WHEELS OR DISCS
his pile.
The next player to the left draws a card. If he
does not know the word, the card is placed to the right
of center in another pile. The next player to the
second child’s left can say, ”1 know it,1 1 and if he reads
the word correctly, place it in his pile. The games
continues around the table until the cards are gone. The
player with the most cards Is the winner.
(9) Take three. Use 52 or 5^ cards divided j
j
into three piles. On the first 18 cards, for example,
i write subject phrases such as: the brown cow, the red
i house, a gray pony, et cetera. On the second group of |
J cards, write action phrases such as: was burning, gave
1 milk, ran home. On the last group of cards, write
I
| additional phrases such as: on the high hill, for boys
! and girls, to the little boy, et cetera. Shuffle and
i
deal out all of the cards. Each player attempts to see
!
j how many stories can be made from the cards in his
| group. Three cards make a story. The first player
i
may find he can make a story with these phrases: The red 1
house - on the hill - was burning. He reads the story
1
j or complete sentence and lays them on the table in front
^ of him. He then asks any other player to trade a card
j
1
! with him. If he then cannot make a story with the
1
! traded card, he passes. The player forming and reading
| the most stories wins the game.^3
(10) Spin the pointer. Words may be arranged
around the outside of a circle. A pointer is placed
inside the center of a circle which has been cut from oak
tag (see Figure 3 on page 58). The child spins the
i
pointer and tries to read the word at which the pointer
stops. Failures and successes can be scored according to
the rules of different games, such as baseball or foot
ball, for example. In baseball scoring, a successful try
; ✓
is a hit and a failing try is an out. The score may be
64
kept in terms of so many runs.
(11) Wheel of chance. A large cardboard clock
!
| face can be numbered from one to twelve or more and fitted
^ with a large movable hand. The hand may be held in place
j with a paper fastener. Alongside the clock face around
1
1 the perimeter, a number of words chosen from a pre-primer
or other basic word list, can be printed, as shown in
Figure 4, shown on page 59* A child when called upon
flicks the hand of the clock, notes the number at which
1
I it stops, and reads the corresponding printed word or
i
, phrase.
1
1 ^^Maude L. Frandsen, "Word Games," The Instructor,
I 61:24 (February, 1952).
! ^Harris, op. cit., p. 321.
bolll
Come
look
down
r
ru n
See
t h e
Pig. 3.
Spin the Pointer
*See (10) Spin the Pointer, p. 57.
59
i
i
i
>
*
I
i
i
Pig. 4.
Wheel of Chance'
j ( • . ' J
otny
%. -From
3.
blue
*• good
S. boy
Co.
all
7-
~HVts
3.
Wbcut
9. ■for
10. c o m e
1/- over
A*. is
i
*See (ll) Wheel of Chance, p. 57
Fig. 5*
j Taehistoscope
' (12) The taehistoscope. This device can be
! ----------------------
I made in sizes to fit the use of 4 x 6 or 3 x 5 cards.
i
The shield and shutter can be cut from stiff cardboard
with an opening made in the center to reveal the word on
the 3 x 5 or 4 x 6 card. The shield may be held upright
on a table top and the word card picked up and placed
against the shield from the back. The shutter is closed
over the word after about a one-quarter of a second
exposure. This device may be used for testing for
quick word recognition and analysis of words. It is
suitable for use not only for primary grades but for
* 66
1 longer words in the upper grades.
^Harris, loc. cit.
6l
(13) Fishing game. Tag board in the shape of a
fish may be cut and paper clip placed on the mouth end,
which will be attracted by a magnet on a string. Words
are written on the cards which are then placed in a fish
i
j bowl or box. The child uses the string to which the
1
magnet is tied to "catch” the fish in the bowl. The fish
are not "landed” until the child can give the name of his
fish. If and when the fish is named the child plaees him
in a pile. The winner is the child who has "landed” the
most fish.
j (l^) Word games. Chip board can be cut in the
j appropriate size, 8 x 11, or larger. Pictures can be
) pasted or drawn on the left side of the chipboard and the
J names of the objects in mixed order printed on the right
! side of the board. The child runs a shoe string from the
i
I left side of the board to match the name of the object on
I
the right side of the board. A number of games may be
i
made from this same idea,— colors, animals, toys, articles
I of clothing, members of the family, et cetera. (See Figs.
i
6 and 8 on page 62.) These games should be self-checking
so as to be useful as an independent activity. (Also
refer to Figs. 7 and 9 on page 62.) This can be done by
1
: drawing the same objects on the reverse side of the board j
I
i with lines drawn from the object to its correct name. The
i
; child can check the correctness of his work by looking on
j the reverse side of the card.
62
redl
ue
Fig. 6. Fig. 7.
Color Came
ccft
Fig. 9-
Animal Game
' 63
Below are shown illustrations of reverse side of
cards in Figures 6 and 8:
C of
; Fig. 10 (6) Fig. 11 (8) |
1 i
I
Color Game Animal Game j
i
i
i
II. OTHER ACTIVITIES
i Kirk^ suggests the use of some of the following
I
I items in teaching word or phrase recognition: /
| (l) Bulletin boards: A bulletin board should be
! utilized for incidental reading. The names of the chil-
I
1 dren, simple directions for their participation in various
f
j activities, or other information may be placed on the bul-
i
* letin board for the children to read and do. Later the
bulletin board may be used for news items of interest to
! the children.
j - - - - ........ .. - -
I
| 67Kirk, op. cit., pp. 37-39.
64
(2) Labels; Labels may be used during the pre-
reading period as well as during beginning reading. The
word, chair, can be written and hung on a chair. The
same can be done with table, desk, et cetera. These
labels can be removed and the children requested or j
allowed to replace them on the proper objects.
(3) Pictures: Pictures of animals, children,
objects, et cetera, labeled appropriately, may be hung on
i
the walls. These are valuable for incidental reading
and may be used with words, phrases, or sentences. These
also can be removed and the children allowed to replace
them on the proper pictures. •
(4) Assignments: During beginning reading certainj
assignments may be given the children outside of the
reading period. If the children are about to engage in
handwork, the teacher may discuss what each child is
going to do, and write on the board such sentences as:
“Sally will sew a dress for her doll,” or "John will
draw a picture,” et cetera.
(5) ®veetings: Greetings and other statements
may occasionally be written on the board in place of
oral expressions. When the children come into the school
room in the morning, the teacher may write on the black
board, "Good morning, boys,” and "Good morning, girls.”
(6) Rules: Certain rules of health, or school
65
j standards can be written on cards or strips of tag and
j posted in various places about the classroom. They
should be changed often as the children learn to read
them and new ones added to maintain interest.
The teacher may capitalize upon the children's need j
! !
i I
j for motor development and give them an opportunity for
action and, at the same time, develop word recognition.
Such action words as run, jump, skip, dance, walk, and
I hop can be exposed and the children allowed to perform the
activity. Later adverbs may be added for phrase reading
or sentence reading as: run fast, jump high, go quickly,
walk slowly, get the ball, and walk up and down.
A picture may be exposed for a short time, and the
children allowed to tell all they remember from it. This
activity may be varied by asking questions about the
picture and having the children answer them.
Selecting likenesses and differences in a number
of objects is still another activity.
j This study has presented only a few of the games
i
; and devices which can be used to stimulate the mentally
i
! retarded child to learn to read for the satisfaction of i
his needs as well as for his leisure time enjoyment.
! CHAPTER V
i
I
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The task of teaching mentally retarded children
is not always an easy one* but it provides many challeng
ing opportunities to be of service to these children. In
teaching reading to the mentally retarded child it is
necessary to establish a readiness for the process. This
may be accomplished by testing for readiness, building
experiential background, language facility, physical,
social, and emotional readiness, if found to be lacking.
First and foremost, it is important to restore the
confidence of the child and insure success by giving him
simple activities in which he can succeed and which he
i
will enjoy performing.
Many techniques should be explored for teaching j
reading to find the one most suited to the child that he i
I
I
may meet his individual needs and desires before one or
! a combination of techniques is selected. There must be
i
many techniques available so that if one does not prove
useful, after sufficient trial, another can be tried.
' Games, devices, and activities geared to the
!
, capabilities of the children and adapted to their needs,
| while still appropriate for the concept to be taught, are
! also considered to be vital equipment for the teacher of
67
the mentally retarded child.
II. CONCLUSIONS
Prom this study the following conclusions have beenj
drawn:
1. That the mentally retarded child can be
taught to read, although at a slower rate and more in
tensive effort on both the part of the child and the
teacher; also by using a greater variety of techniques.
2. That oral reading is probably the best
method for use in teaching the mentally retarded child.
3. That many authorities are agreed that many
methods which are applicable to the mentally normal
child must be greatly modified for use with the mentally
retarded child.
4. That a readiness program is necessary at
every stage in the reading program, whether it is for
beginning reading or for beginning a new activity.
5. That a continuing program of diagnosis and
evaluation should be maintained in order to keep the
reading program adapted to the needs of the individual
child and to keep it interesting and practical as well.
BIBLIOGRAPHY
BIBLIOGRAPHY
i Adams, Pay, Educating Americans Children. New York:
The Ronald Press Company, 1954.
I i
, and Lillian Gray and Dora Reese. Teaching j
Children to Read. New York: The Ronald Press Com- s
pany, 1949. I
|
Baker, Harry J. Introduction to Exceptional Children. j
New York: The Ronald Press, 195^. !
i Betts, Emmett Albert. Foundations of Reading Instrue-
I tion. New York: American Book Company, 1950.
; Bond, Guy L., and Eva Bond Wagner. Teaching the Child to|
j Read. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1950.
i Carter, Homer L., and Dorothy J. McGinnis. Learning to
Read. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.7
I T$55.
Dolch, Edward William. A Manual for Remedial Reading.
Champaign, Illinois: The Garrard Press, l$’ 4Sh
j _ _ _ _ _ . Helping Handicapped Children in School. Cham-
I paign, Illinois: The Garrard Press, 1948.
i
Methods in Reading. Champaign, Illinois: !
The Garrard Press, 1955.
. Problems in Reading. Champaign, Illinois:
The Garrard Press, 1948.
| Durrell, Donald D., and others. Building Word Power.
Yonkers-on-Hudson, New York: World Book Company,
i 1 9 ^ 5 .
Featherstone, William Bland. The Curriculum of the
Special Class. New York: Bureau of Publications,
Teachers College, Columbia University Press, 1951*
»
i
Teaching the Slow Learner. New York: Bureau |
of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia Univer- 1
sity Press, 1932.
Fernald, Grace M. Remedial Techniques in Basic School.
New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc., 1943.
Gagg, J. C., and M. E. Gagg. Teaching Children to Read.
London: Newnes Educational Publishing Company, Ltd.,
1955.
j Gates, Arthur I. Interests and Ability in Reading. New
l York: The Macmillan Company, 1930.
I
I Gratke, Juliette M. Help Them Help Themselves. Dallas,
Texas: Texas Society for Crippled Children, 1947.
Gray, William S., On Their Own in Reading. New York:
Scott, Poresman and Company, 194b.
Harris, Albert J... How to Increase Reading Ability. New
York: Longmans, Green and Company, 1954.
1
Hester, Kathleen B. Teaching Every Child to Read. New
York: Harper Brothers Publishers, 1955.
Ingram, Christine. Education of the Slow Learning Child.
New York: The Ronald Press Company, 1953.
Kirk, Samuel 0. Teaching Reading to Slow Learning Chil
dren. Cambridge, Massachusetts: Houghton Mifflin
Company, 1951.
Kottmeyer, William. Handbook for Remedial Reading. St.
| Louis: Webster Publishing Company, 1947.
Lamareaux, Lillian A., and Doris M. Lee. Learning to
j Read Through Experience. New York: Appleton-Century
| Company, 1945. -
1
JMartens, Elsie H. Curriculum Adjustments for the Men-
I tally Retarded. Washington, D. C.: Federal Security
| Agency, Bulletin No. 2, 1950.
jMonroe, Marion. Growing in Reading. New York: Scott,
; Poresman and Company, 1951•
1
Russell, David H. Children Learn to Read. Boston:
Ginn and Company, 1949.
1
j_______, and Etta E. Karp. Reading Aids Through the
| Grades. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teachers
College, University of Columbia Press, 1955.
71
Tinker, Miles A. Teaching of Elementary Reading. New
York: Appleton-Century-Crofts, Inc., 1952.
1 Witty, Paul. Reading in Modern Education. Boston:
■ D. C. Heath and Company, 1948. ”
| Woodruff, Asahel. The Psychology of Teaching. New York:
j Longsmans, Green and Company, Inc., l95l*
B. PERIODICALS
Baker, Harry J. "Helping the Slow Learner,” Journal of
the National Education Association, 39:3, November,
1952-
Delph, Harry A. "The Retarded Child,” The Grade Teacher,
71:9/ May, 1954.
Dewey, John. "Some Aspects of Modern Education,” School
and Society, 34:4, October, 1931*
Frandsen, Maude Linstrom. "Word Games," The Instructor,
61:24, February, 1952.
Leary, Bernice. "Current Issues Relating to Basic
Instruction in Reading," Recent Trends in Reading.
Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1939,
Whipple, Gertrude. "Characteristics of a Sound Reading
Program," Forty-Eighth Yearbook of the National
Society for the Study of Education, Part II, Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 194$.
C. PUBLICATIONS OF LEARNED ORGANIZATIONS
California State Department of Education. California
Education Code, Section 9^01. Sacramento: Califor
nia State Department of Education, 1955-
National Education Association. Education for All
American Children. Washington, D. C.: Education
Policies Commission of the National Education Asso
ciation, 1948.
Los Angeles City Schools. Instructional Guide for
Teachers of Special Training Schools and Classes. Los
Angeles; Los Angeles City School District Curriculum
Division, Publication No. E.C.13S, 19^9.
i
1
i
i
!
I
I
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Asset Metadata
Creator
Moore, Edna Armstrong
(author)
Core Title
Techniques for teaching reading to primary mentally retarded children.
Degree
Master of Science
Degree Program
Education,Reading,Special Education
Publisher
University of Southern California
(original),
University of Southern California. Libraries
(digital)
Tag
education, special,OAI-PMH Harvest
Format
masters theses
(aat)
Language
English
Contributor
Digitized by ProQuest
(provenance)
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c24-306990
Unique identifier
UC11276309
Identifier
EP48874.pdf (filename),usctheses-c24-306990 (legacy record id)
Legacy Identifier
EP48874.pdf
Dmrecord
306990
Document Type
Thesis
Format
masters theses (aat)
Rights
Moore, Edna Armstrong
Type
texts
Source
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Access Conditions
The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...
Repository Name
University of Southern California Digital Library
Repository Location
USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA
Tags
education, special