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A program for helping retarded readers in the intermediate grades.
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A program for helping retarded readers in the intermediate grades.
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Content
A PROGRAM FOR HELPING RETARDED READERS
IN THE INTERMEDIATE GRADES
A Project
Presented to
the Faculty of the School of Education
The University of Southern California
In Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Master of Science in Education
by
Robert Donald Coots
r
August 1951
UMI Number: EP46731
Alt rights reserved
INFORMATION TO ALL USERS
The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted.
In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete manuscript
and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if material had to be removed,
a note will indicate the deletion.
Dissertation Publishing
UMI EP46731
Published by ProQuest LLC (2014). Copyright in the Dissertation held by the Author.
Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC.
All rights reserved. This work is protected against
unauthorized copying under Title 17, United States Code
ProQuest LLC.
789 East Eisenhower Parkway
P.O. Box 1346
Ann Arbor, Ml 48106- 1346
EJ 'Si £77?
This project report, w ritte n under the direction
of the candidate’s adviser and approved by him ,
has been presented to and accepted by the F acu lty
of the School of Education in p a rtia l fu lfillm e n t of
the requirements fo r the degree of M a ste r of
Science in Education.
Date ......................
Cl . ......
A d vise r
Dean
TABLE OP CONTENTS
CHAPTER PAGE
I. THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED 1
The problem........................... 2
Statement of the problem .......... 2
Importance of the problem ........... 2
Definitions of terms used ............. 4
Program............ 4
Retarded readers ................... 4
Intermediate grades ................. 4
Limitations of this project ........... 4
IT. REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE............... 7
Possible maladjustments ............... 7
Objectives............................ 10
Causes of poor readers............... 14
Physical handicaps ................. 16
Lack of reading readiness........... 17
Mental retardation ................. 18
Directional confusion ............... 19
. Special brain defects . .......... 20
Emotional handicaps ................. 20
Accidental interference with learning ' 21
Poor teaching....................... 22
ill
CHAPTER PAGE
Techniques of teaching ............... 24
Techniques in organizing and admin
istering a program........... 26
Methods of diagnosis ................. 27
Important statistical information . . . 29
Sex differences in reading retardation 31
Persistence of errors in oral reading
in grades four and five..... 32
Summary and conclusions from related
literature.................... 3^
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY ....................... 35
III. SELECTION OF CHILDREN ..... ........ 41
Evaluating the child's reading on the
basis of teacher or parent expectancy 42
Identifying his skill on the basis of
the accomplishment of his grade or
class group.................... 42
Determining his success in relation to
the norms on a standardized or teacher-
prepared reading test......... 42
A rule-of-thumb to ascertain reading
level.......................... 43
iv
CHAPTER PAGE
IV. MOTIVATION........................ 45
Approaches, to non-readers..... 4-5
Basic principles of effective motivation 51
Summary of motivation .................. 57
V. METHODS AND TECHNIQUES OF REMEDIAL
INSTRUCTION.................... 59
Methods of remedial instruction .... 59
Improving reading techniques ...... 65
Activities for the remedial class . . . 76
The opaque...................... 79
Other visual a i d s ............. 82
Routine for the remedial class. 84
VI. MEASURING PROGRESS .......... 93
Progress charts ....................... 93
A testing program ..................... 96
Other methods of evaluation... 102
BIBLIOGRAPHY............................ 105
APPENDIX A: BOOK REPORT................ 109
APPENDIX B: BOOKS FOR RETARDED READERS .... 112
LIST OF TABLES
TABLE PAGE
I. Reading Retardation by Grade Levels . . . 30
II. Sex Differences In Reading Retardation . 32
III. Oral Reading Difficulties of One Hundred
Fourth and Fifth Grade Pupils in the
Wellsville Public Schools ............. 33
IV. Suggested Weekly Schedule ............... 85
CHAPTER I
THE PROBLEM AND DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED
The general subject of how to improve reading
Instruction in the public schools has been a topic for
discussion for many years. Many educators have been,
and are, concerned with the methods being used to teach
reading. Much study and research has been done in
order to see if a better way of presenting reading
could be determined.
During the past decade the schools have been
under much pressure both from within and without. Not
only have lay people been concerned with the job that
the schools are doing, but also many educators have
questioned certain practices.
One of the biggest complaints from many people
is that our children are not being taught how to read.
Many of them feel that there should be a return to the
methods commonly used in what is now referred to as
the traditional school. To be more specific, many
people feel that schools should teach the children
more phonics or sounding out of words. Complaints
commonly made are to the effect that under the present
method of teaching, children do not learn how to
achieve independence in recognizing words.
The purpose of this paper is not to present the
pros and cons of the traditional and so-called "pro
gressive schools." The purpose is to offer certain
suggestions or methods whereby a teacher will be better
prepared to help the retarded readers that he will find
in his classes.
I. THE PROBLEM
Statement of the problem. Many times a teacher
of reading id faced with the problem of "what to do next"
with some boys and girls. The answer is not always an
easy one to find. The objective of this project was to
suggest a program to intermediate grade teachers that
would aid them in helping their retarded readers attain
greater success.
Importance of the problem. Studies in the field
of reading are extremely important. Reading is, of
course, one of the most basic of skills. It is a skill
which makes life more worthwhile. Almost everything we
see has reading material in it.
The teaching of reading has improved consider
ably during the last fifty years. Teachers of reading
now attempt to make reading a vital part of the every
day living of boys and girls. Even though great strides
have been made, there are still those who feel that
reading should be introduced to children in a more
functional manner. Especially is this true in the
field of remedial reading instruction.
There has been much improvement during the last
few years in the field of remedial education. No longer
is the slow-learning child looked on as a drag upon
society. He is now considered to hold just as impor
tant a place in the educational scheme as the brighter
child. It formerly was felt that the slow child hind-»
ered the growth of the brighter child. More and more
research is being done to determine the particular
problems of the slow learning child.
The strength of a democracy lies in a literate
and intelligent populace. By helping the slower chil
dren to become more effective readers, we are not
only aiding them but also the future development of
the country. Only if boys and girls are able to read
adequately will they be able to vote wisely anddbe
able to make many of the important decisions which
life forces upon them.
II. DEFINITIONS OF TERMS USED
Program. The term program was used to denote
the actual outline followed in the organization of
the remedial reading class. It included the methods
and special difficulties, as well as the actual reme
dial techniques involved.
Retarded readers♦ The term retarded readers
was used to mean any boy or girl one year or more be
hind his or her expected achievement level. It now
is realized that any child, no matter what his IQ may
be, can be classified as a retarded reader. Some chil
dren, for one reason or another, do not come up to
their expected achievement level.
Intermediate grades. In this project any boy
or girl was considered in an intermediate grade if
he was in his fourth, fifth, or sixth year of school
ing.
III. LIMITATIONS OF THIS PROJECT
This project has been written to meet the needs
of the teacher in the regular classroom situation. It
5
is not intended to cover the special methods used in
helping the seriously retarded readers found in
reading clinics. The regular classroom teacher would
probably not be able to meet the needs of the seriously
retarded reader. Such children would need the special*
treatment of a reading clinic.
CHAPTER II
REVIEW OP THE LITERATURE
There has been, and continues to be, a large
amount of research on how best to meet the needs of
the retarded child. The retarded child varies all
the way from the one who is only slightly behind his
classmates, to the one who just does not seem to learn
no matter what system of remedial aid is used.
Reading is of a very abstract nature. Anderson
has defined reading as "the psychological process by
which meaning is secured from printed symbols."1 He
says that among the functions made use of in the pro
cess of reading are apprehending, comprehending, rea
soning, and thinking. These items are all of a func
tional, and not a static, nature. Anderson concludes
that an important difference between good and poor
reading is the better ability of the good readers to
make their reading useful in serving their various
„ 2
ends.
1 Irving H. Anderson, "An Evaluation of Some
Recent Research in the Psychology of Reading," Harvard
Educational Review, 7:330* 1937*
2 Ibid., p. 332.
Harris has used the term "remedial reading"
to describe teaching efforts which are intended to
aid a child to overcome certain disabilities or to
correct faulty reading skills. This is the generally
accepted definition of remedial reading. The remedial
reading program is set up by a school system to help
3
certain children become more effective readers.
I. POSSIBLE MALADJUSTMENTS
Before discussing the causes, methods of hand
ling, and other important implications of poor read
ing, let us consider briefly some of the maladjust
ments which could, and do, result from retardation
in reading. Gates made a study of one hundred random
cases selected from a list of retarded readers. He
noted the following types of unfortunate adjustments:
1. Nervous tensions and habits, such as
stuttering, nail-biting, restlessness,
insomnia, and pathological illnesses—
10 cases.
2. Putting up a bold front as a defense re-
3
Albert J. Harris, How to Increase Reading
Ability (New York: Longmans Green and Company,
1949), P,. 20.
action; loud talk, defiant conduct, sullen
ness— -16 cases.
3. Retreat reactions, such as withdrawal from
ordinary associations, joining outside
gangs, and truancy— 14 cases.
4. Counterattack, such as making mischief in
school, playing practical jokes, thefts,
destructiveness, cruelty, bullying— 18
cases.
5. Withdrawing reactions, including mind-wander
ing and day-dreaming— 26 cases.
6. Extreme self-consciousness; becoming easily
injured, blushing, developing peculiar fads
and frills and eccentricities, inferiority
feelings— 35 cases.
7. Give-up or submissive adjustments, as shown
by inattentiveness, indifference, and appar-
4
ent laziness— 33 cases.
In all of these one hundred cases, Gates noticed
only eight who apparently made an attempt to compensate
Arthur I. Gates, "Failure in Reading and
Social Maladjustment,1 1 Journal of the National Educa
tion Association, 25:204, October,"193^
9
for the reading disability by improvement along some
other line of endeavor such as drawing, singing, or
dramatics. It can be seen then that there is a real
need for- the improvement of reading habits.
One would be foolish to make the assumption that
not being able to read was the only cause of the mal
adjustments. However, from all of the evidence gath
ered, it would appear that lack of reading ability
does play a large part in causing maladjusted lives.
More studies are needed on discovering the needs
of boys and girls who are failing in reading. In a
study by Broenlng, it was determined that they needed
to improve along these lines:
1. To take a more alert attitude toward what
they read.
2. To decrease the forces inhibiting reading
by making radio-listening and movie-going
a stimulus to reading.
3. To improve the reading skills in which the
test revealed to them their specific weak
nesses .
k. To discriminate as to which reading method
was appropriate to which reading purpose.
5. To make this discrimination so habitual that
10
the reader's mind would be relieved from
the waste of excitement and worry over
failure in school work and frustration in
5
reading good literature for recreation.
Studies such as this help to guide thinking along
the proper channels. They bring to light certain goals
to be attained if reading instruction programs are to
be successful. Through such studies the needs of re
tarded readers are determined. After they are once
determined, it will then be possible to find the solu
tions.
II. OBJECTIVES
Any good plan, no matter what the subject is,
must have certain objectives in order to do the job
successfully. Reading objectives are usually in the
form of desired skills which, when mastered, help in
dividuals become effective readers.
Harris has set up some excellent objectives
to guide reading instruction:
5
Angela M. Broening, "Abilities Which Contribute
to Effective Reading," Education, 62:11-12, September,
1941.
Developmental Reading
1. Skill in the mechanics of reading.
a. Development of a large sight voca
bulary.
b. Development of skill in identifying
unfamiliar words.
c. Good eye-movement habits.
d. Proper habits of posture, holding
books, etc.
e. Speed and fluency in silent reading.
f. Oral reading skills: phrasing, ex
pression, pitch, volume, enunciation.
2. Skill in reading comprehencion.
a. Acquisition of a rich, extensive, and
accurate vocabulary.
b. Ability to grasp the meaning of units
of increasing size: phrase, sentence,
paragraph, whole selection.
c. Ability to find answers to specific
questions.
d. Ability to select and understand main
ideas.
e. Ability to understand a sequence of
events.
f. Ability to note and recall-details.
g. Ability to grasp the organization
of the author’s plan.
h. Ability to follow directions accur
ately.
i. Ability to evaluate what one reads.
j. Ability to remember what one has read.
Recreational Reading.
1. Development of liking for reading as a
Voluntary leisure-time activity.
2. Development of ability to locate interest
ing and enjoyable reading matter.
3. Satisfaction of present recreational in
terests and tastes through reading.
4. Development of more varied, more mature,
and more refined reading tastes.
5. Development of liking oral reading as a
means of entertaining others.
Functional Reading.
1. Ability to locate needed reading material.
a. Use of index.
b. Use of table of contents.
c. Use of dictionary.
d. Use of encyclopedia.
e. Use of library card files.
f. Use of other bibliographical aids.
g. Use of skimming in search for in
formation.
2. Ability to comprehend informational
material.
a. Application of general comprehension
skills.
b. Development of specific skills needed
by special subject-matter.
(1) Reading of arithmetic problems.
(2) Reading of maps, charts, and
graphs.
3. Ability to select the material needed.
4. Ability to organize what is read.
a. Ability to summarize.
/r
b. Ability to outline.
By using some outline similar to this, a teacher
can arrange the program in such a manner that the
ultimate objectives will be accomplished. Only if a
teacher is able to set up in his own mind what it is
that he wants to accomplish, will he be able to trans
mit that knowledge to a boy or girl who needs it.
6
Harris, op. cit., pp. 63-64.
14
III. CAUSES OF POOR READERS
It is very helpful to the remedial teacher to
know the various causes of reading disability cases.
If It were possible to say that all reading problems
came about through one cause, it would simplify matters
considerably. Authorities agree, in general, that there :
are many causes for retardation in reading.
Gellerman has said that "learning to read is a
composite experience, a dynamic integration of many
subtly interrelated variables, very few of which may be
7
effectively controlled in the classroom." ' He says
that "the child's physiological condition, his family
security, his social status in the play group, even so
seemingly insignificant a factor as the weather— all
may have direct bearing on his classroom performance.
Thus it can be seen that every retarded reader
presents a new problem. It is not possible to treat
all children in the same manner. There is no such thing
as one, set cause for retarded readers. Indeed, it Is
usual for an individual child to have multiple causes
^ S. W. Gellerman, "Causal Factors in the Reading
Difficulties of Elementary School Children," Efementary
School Journal, 49:524, May 1949*
^ Loc. cit.
15
for not reading satisfactorily. Teachers must accept
this premise.
Harris has enumerated a number of the causes of
poor reading:
1. Lack of reading readiness.
2. Mental retardation.
3. Physical handicaps.
4. Directional confusion.
5- Special brain defects.
6. Emotional handicaps.
7. Accidental interference with learning.
8. Poor teaching.
a. Failure to enrich the program.
b. Failure to adjust the instructional
procedures.
c. Failure to provide a rich variety of
reading materials.
d. Failure to develop the proper classroom
atmosphere.
e. Failure to notice difficulties while
9
they are still minor.
9
Harris, op. cit., adapted from pp. 15-19*
16
Wllking has divided the causes of reading re
tardation into three main groups: (1) physical factors, ;
(2) educational factors, and (3) environmental factors.10!
In general, all of the points he includes under his main 1
headings were mentioned in the causes as listed by Harris *
Authorities are, generally speaking, in virtual agreement;
as to the general causes of reading retardation.
11 12-
Physical handicaps. Hildreth and Harris
agree that any one or a combination of two or more
causes may be the reason a boy or girl becomes retarded
In reading. It is extremely important before starting
any remedial training that the cause of retardation be
properly identified. Perhaps the difficulty is a simple !
matter to adjust. If the difficulty can be remedied
easily, it should be taken care of immediately. It
may be because of some eye defect that a child was
having trouble. It is a rather simple matter to have
10 S. Vincent Wilking, "Personality Maladjustment
as a Causative Factor in Reading Disability," Elementary
School Journal, 42:269, December 1941.
11
Gertrude Hildreth, Learning the Three R's
(Minneapolis, Nashville, Philadelphia: Educational
Publishers, Inc., 1947), PP* 347-55*
^ Harris, loc♦ cit.
IT
him fitted with glasses. If the trouble is found to
be physical, it is usually a simple matter to correct
it.
Oftentimes, however, the correction of some
physical defect does not prove sufficient, since the
reading retardation may have been caused by a number
of non-physical factors. It is important to remember
that growth seems to take place not only intellectually
and physically, but also emotionally and socially. This
has been overlooked too often in the past in the diag
nosis of reading difficulty. It Is impossible to sep
arate one factor from another and to study each as an
entity. Emotional and social factors may play a large
part in causing retardation.
Lack of reading readiness. Some children mature
later than others. Teachers of reading should take
this into account when presenting reading to children
for the first time. Presenting reading to a child be
fore he is ready for It is really doing him a grave
injustice. A child who Is not yet mature enough to
profit by beginning reading instruction, may build up
negative attitudes toward reading, after falling in
his first efforts. These negative attitudes, if allowed
18
to continue, develop into mental blocks. The child
naturally dislikes anything connected with reading
because he has not enjoyed any happy and successful
experiences with it. Thus it can be seen that lack
of reading readiness may have been one of the important
reasons why a child was not reading. If an intermedi
ate grade teacher receives a child who cannot read
adequately, it may be necessary to go back to develop
the basic skills which are lacking in the child's read
ing ability. If the reader desires more information,
18 14
Hildreth J and Kirk have gone into considerable de
tail on this topic.
Mental retardation. Perhaps the study brings
out the fact that the child is mentally retarded. He
might actually be working at his own capacity level.
To continually force more difficult material on a child
of this nature is an exceedingly unwise practice.
Instead, his interests should be uncovered and books
dealing with those particular interests should be found.
Before.he will gain independence in reading, much
^ Hildreth, o£. clt., pp. 340-43*
14
Samuel A. Kirk, Teaching Reading to Slow-
Learning Children (New York: Houghton-MifTTin Com
pany, 1940), p. 153-
19
reteaching will have to be done. It will be necessary
to build up his interest in reading and his confidence
in being able to read. In this particular type of
case, perhaps the wisest thing to do would be actually
to forget about reading at first. Instead, stress
building up a mutual feeling of respect and confidence
between teacher and pupil* For only if the pupil has
confidence in the teacher, will he really want to learn.
Hildreth has an excellent section on mental retarda-
15
tion.
16 17
Directional confusion. Witty and Kirk have
contributed to the theory of directional confusion.
Not too much in the way of tangible evidence has been
found in the literature to corroborate the theory of
directional confusion. It is enough to mention here
that some people believe that children who are not con
sistently right-handed or right-eyed are more likely
to develop disabilities than those who are consistently
^ Hildreth, 0£. clt., pp. 344-47-
Paul Witty, Reading in Modern Education
(Boston: D. C. Heath and Company, 1$49), pp. 185-
187-
^ Kirk, o£. cit., p. 153*
20
right-sided or left-sided.
Special brain defects. A few authorities are
attempting to’pin poor reading down to some special
brain defect. They believe that the inability to learn
to read is because of some special, inherent constitu
tional defect. "Congenital word-blindness," "con
genital alexia," and "developmental alexia," are common
terms used in these studies.
Emotional.handicaps. Perhaps one of the most im
portant single causes for maladjusted readers is that
of emotional handicaps. There are many separate cate
gories to be considered under the general term of
"emotions." However, it is sufficient for this dis
cussion to say that emotions do have a profound influ
ence on the way a person thinks and acts. If, every
time a boy recites in class, he is met with laughter
and sarcasm, he will naturally build up a distaste for
the particular subject, be it spelling, arithmetic,
or reading. An important consideration for all teach
ers to remember is to build always from a positive, not
a negative, angle. Pick out the positive features of
each pupil, no matter how small or insignificant they
may seem. In this way it will be possible to build up
21
a healthy emotional outlook, with its obvious contri
bution to the future well-being of the child. Although
emotions are hard things to test or measure, do not
overlook them when dealing with a retarded child.
Hildreth's discussion of this point is particularly
18
valuable.
Accidental interference with learning. Another
possible cause for maladjusted readers is accidental
interference with learning. Sometimes a child becomes
ill and is forced to miss an important point in his
reading instruction. When he finally does come back to
school and discovers that he is not quite up with the
rest of the class, he is liable to develop a feeling
of inferiority and lose interest in progressing any
further. The teacher*should be sure that a child is
brought up to date if he has been forced to miss school
for a prolonged period of time. Sometimes a child
is forced to change schools in the middle of the year.
This happens a great deal in districts whose popula
tion is of a migratory nature. The child is contin
ually forced to become adjusted to a new school, a
new teacher, new playmates, and a completely new
Hildreth, o£. cit., pp. 364-66.
community. This can work quite a hardship on a child.
This situation challenges the ingenuity of teachers
to be able to meet it successfully when it arises.
As was mentioned previously, the teacher who can
easily develop and maintain a feeling of mutual trust
and understanding between himself and the child has
gone a long way in helping children to overcome their
handicaps.
Poor teaching. Harris mentions that poor
teaching can take place in a number of ways. Some
teachers, for example, fail to develop a good back
ground for reading comprehension by a rich and varied
program of first-hand and vicarious experiences for
the children. If a teacher develops a program rich
in first-hand and vicarious experiences, it will lead
to greater understanding and cooperation in written,
creative, oral, and dramatic work. Such a program
will uncover the specific interests of the group, and
thereby greater learning will take place.
Having the children work at their own capacity
and maturity levels has received a great deal of atten
tion in the past, and will continue to do so in the
future. Some teachers, however, continue to give their
pupils work that is too difficult for them to comprehend.
It is very important for teachers to adjust their in
structional procedures to the levels of their students.
Many years ago the schools were not as concerned
with individual differences as the schools are today.
As has been discussed, children do not mature at the
same rate. In order to compensate for these tremendous
differences in development, it is necessary to have a
variety of interesting materials, suitable for different
levels of interest, maturity, and development. The
teacher who fails to provide such materials might poss
ibly be contributing to the mass of American children
referred to as retarded readers.
As has already been inferred, it is vitally
important for the teacher to make the child feel at
ease in reading. Nothing is more beneficial to suc
cessful achievement than the feeling of being a real
part of the group. Every child should have the feel
ing that his contribution is important. A teacher
should realize this and make every effort to see that
the child attains some success each day. There should
be gradual improvement as soon as a feeling of con
fidence is restored in the child.
Some teachers fail to notice little things in
the reading patterns of their children. They allow
2h
slight errors or mistakes in judgment to go along
unnoticed. Before long these little errors blossom
into a serious reading deficiency. It is important
for teachers to catch these wrong practices before
they have had a chance to become serious problems.
If this procedure is always followed, some of the
reading problems will be avoided.
Most authorities are in agreement that reading
difficulties, in general, are the result of inadequate
techniques in the school and in the home. Gellerman
found that reading difficulties are cumulative. The
longer that they are allowed to continue, the more
serious they become. He concludes'.that when retarda
tion is quickly and capably investigated, the more
quickly and fully will the achievement level be re
stored to the capacity level of the child. "Normality"
19
is entirely possible in most instances.
IV. TECHNIQUES OF TEACHING
There are a number of different techniques which
have been used successfully in the classroom. As in
almost every other teaching situation, there probably
19
Gellerman, op. cit., p. 530*
25
is no one best method to use. A teacher has to be
able to adapt his program to fit the needs of the
children.
Hildreth has listed a number of possible tech
niques, or methods, for use in the remedial reading
program.
1. Kinaesthetic.
2. Phonetic.
3*
Sound discrimination.
4. Visual perception.
5-
Whole method.
6.
20
Experience method.
Authorities seem to be in agreement that these
are the most popular methods of teaching remedial read
ing in use at the present time. It must be remembered
that no one method will work all of the time* A good
teacher is able to adapt the various techniques to fit
the individual needs of the child. These techniques
are discussed in greater detail in Chapter V of this
study.
on
Hildreth, 0£. cit., p. 434.
26
V. TECHNIQUES IN ORGANIZING AND
ADMINISTERING A PROGRAM
There are certain basic things that the teacher
should consider when organizing a class for remedial
Instruction. Harris has listed some general principles
to keep in mind when conducting a remedial reading
program:
1. Reading must be made an enjoyable activity.
2. Systematic training must be given In the
mastery of specific reading skills.
3. A good reading program is balanced and con
tains varied activities.
4. Provision must be made for individual differ
ences .
5. Special attention must be given to pupils
21
whose reading is below normal.
Authorities seem to be in agreement as to the
methods used in the class management. Generally speak
ing, the teacher should set up from three to four groups
and have the children select some name for their group.
Selecting a name, rather than a letter or a number,
21
Harris, o£. cit., pp. 94-95-
27
is preferred because it eliminates the possibility
of differences arising among the groups.
Harris mentions as some other points to consider
in a remedial class (1) the size of the group, (2)
arranging the schedule, (3) frequency of meetings, (4)
length of meetings, (5) homework, and (6) keeping
22
records. These points will all be discussed in
greater detail in later chapters.
All of these points should be considered when
organizing and administering a remedial class. It is
the responsibility of the teacher to arrange the group
in such a manner that the individuals in the group will
develop to the limit of their capacity.
VI. METHODS OF DIAGNOSIS
There are many ways in which to diagnose a group
of children in order satisfactorily to determine their
need for remedial training.
When mental maturity and reading comprehension
do not unfold at approximately the same rate, an in
dividual case study might be made. Perhaps reading
might be the teacher's first clue that there is a
22
Ibid., p. 258*
difficulty. Reading might be the main agent in telling
that something more serious is happening. It is the
other factors that teachers need to be concerned with,
for they are actually more critical to the child than
learning the skills of reading. A child not progress
ing in reading is the symptom that might well start
a person searching for the causative factors which are
interfering. It is these factors which might block
all phases of growth. These factors usually center
around vision, hearing, speech, glandular disturbance,
heredity, nervous disorders, social living at home,
and even the school's method of teaching this particu-
23
lar child.
DeLand asked some college students of education
to make surveys and to chart the mental level of maturity,
rate of development and reading expectancy for each
child in her first grade classroom. The purpose of the
study was to guide teachers into studying the individual
children found in the classrooms. The results of these
studies are very enlightening. Studies such as this
"should aid teachers in seeing which children are capable
Clara DeLand, "Early Discovery of the Slow
Learner," Journal of Exceptional Children, 14:134,
February, 1948.
29
of doing certain kinds of work, at what level to
pitch the work, and at what rate of speed the work
i.24
might be expected to unfold.
Some of the significant points which were de
termined were:
1. There was a large spread in chronological
and mental ages.
2. Nine of the twenty-one cases studied were
not ready mentally to do first grade reading
as reading is presented in most schools
today.
3* Of these nine children who were unable to
do first grade reading, ^one was from the
average group of children, four from the
group of slow learners, and four from the
mentally retarded.
4. Socially and economically the children came
25
from similar home backgrounds.
VII. IMPORTANT STATISTICAL INFORMATION
Several important studies have been made which
are particularly valuable to any remedial reading
24 ' 1 '
L°cv cit ♦ ,
25 • ’
Ibid., pp. 135-36.
30
Teacher.
Alden, Sullivan and Durrell made a study of
reading retardation by grade levels. According to their
results, as shown in Table I, the low figure for the
second grade probably is accounted for by the fact that
26
TABLE I
*
READING RETARDATION BY GRADE LEVELS
Grade
Number
of
pupils
Retarded one
or more years
Retarded two
or more years
No-. Percent No. Percent
2 576 40
6.9
1
.17
3
1016 111
10.9
8 • 78
4 1278 234
18.3
62 5.80
3
1848
335
18.1 86 4.70
6 1646
197
12.0 60 3.70
* Based on Durrell-Sulliuan Reading Capacity and Achieve
ment Tests.
this early in the child's school career, a year's retard
ation in reading represents a more serious retardation
Clara L. Alden, Helen B. Sullivan, and Donald
D. Durrell, ’ ’ Frequency of Special Reading Disabilities,"
Education, 62:135^ September, 1941.
than in later years. For example, the second grade
child who is achieving at only half of the normal rate,
whale a fifth grade child who is a year behind is
achieving at eighty percent of the normal rate. In
primary grades, teachers should not wait until a child
is retarded a full year before they consider him to
have special difficulty in reading. The low figure
for the sixth grade is also unexpected. It Is possible
that the reading instruction was better in the sixth
grades sampled than in the earlier grades. It is also
possible that the capacity test did not have a suffi
ciently high ^caLling" to measure the better sixth-
graders, with the result that they achieved higher in
27
reading than in hearing comprehension.
Sex differences in reading retardation.
Several studies have been made on sex differences In
reading retardation. All of these studies have found
that girls usually have less difficulty in reading
than boys. The findings of Alden, Sullivan, and
28
Durrell confirm this conclusion. Their findings
32
are shown In Table II.
29 ,
TABLE II
SEX DIFFERENCES IN READING RETARDATION
Boys who were
retarded
Girls who were
retarded
Number Percent Number Percent
Grade 2 288
9.7
288 4.2
Grade 3
511 14.7 505 7.1
Grade 4 696 23.6 582 12.0
Grade 5
935 24.5 913
11.6
Grade 6 889 13-7 757 9.9
Total
3319
18.6 3045 9.8
Persistence of errors In oral reading in grades
four and five. Another valuable study was made by
Daw in which the persistence of errors in oral reading
30
in grades four and five were examined. The results
of the study showed that the most common errors In
the fifth grade were poor enunciation, inadequate word
29 Loc- clt.
2Q
J Seward E. Daw, "The Persistence of Errors in
Oral Reading in Grades Pour and Five," Journal of Educa
tional Research, 32t83-84, October, 193^
33
31
TABLE III
ORAL READING DIFFICULTIES OF ONE HUNDRED
FOURTH AND FIFTH GRADE PUPILS IN THE
WELLSVTLLE PUBLIC SCHOOLS
Reading difficulty
Fifth
grade
Fourth
grade
Poor enunciation 40
39
Inadequate word mastery skill
39
41
Errors on small words
33
26
Inadequate phrasing
29 37
Lack of expression 28 24
Ignoring punctuation
13
12
Habitual repetition 12 20
Bad head movements 12 20
Volume too loud or too soft 8
23
mastery skill, poor expression, inadequate phrasing,
and errors on small words. The most common errors in
the fourth grade were inadequate word mastery skill,
poor enunciation, inadequate phrasing, and lack of
expression.
31
Loc. cit., adapted from pp. 83-84.
34
VIII. SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS PROM
RELATED LITERATURE
There is no doubt that the ability to interpret
abstract symbols on a page is a desirable skill. No
matter how thorough the instruction is, no matter how
good a teacher is, and no matter how much research is
done on the subject, there will always be a few children
who will be unable to read adequately. As has been
determined there is no,one basic cause or explanation
of why this is so. Given the same instruction, from
the same books, and by the same teacher, one child will
read and another one will not. Instead, multiple causes
are usually found when seeking an adequate explanation.
Research has made plain the necessity of making
reading instruction more functional. It is now commonly
accepted that teachers of reading should teach children
to read in order to learn and not merely to learn to
read. In other words, they should not make reading an
entity in itself. They should use it as a tool through
which children can broaden their ..experiences and lead
richer, fuller, and more worthwhile lives.
ANNOTATED
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ANNOTATED BIBLIOGRAPHY
Alden, Clara L., Helen B. Sullivan, and Donald D.
Durrell, "Frequency of Special Reading Disabil
ities," Education, 62:32-36, September, 1941.
Valuable for giving several implications for the
management of a successful reading program. It
is important to know about how many retarded
readers to expect. The article has a table con
firming that there are more boys than girls who
are retarded readers.
Anderson, Irving, "An Evaluation of Some Recent Re-
Search in the Psychology of Reading," Harvard
Educational Review, 7:330-39* May, 1937^
Excellent for supplying some basic reasons for
retarded readers. The article also contains a
good definition of reading.
Artley, A. S., "The Appraisal of Reading Comprehension,"
Journal of Educational Psychology, 34:55-60,
January, 194$.
Excellent source of information as to what a
good reading test should contain. His conclusion
Is that the ability to engage in one type of
reading does not guarantee the ability to engage
in another type.
Averill, Lawrence A., and Alfred D. Mueller, "Size of
Class and Reading Efficiency," Elementary School
Journal, 25:682-91, May, 1925-
Good information on how large a class should be
in order to get the most from it. The size of
the class has a definite influence on its
success.
Bobbitt, Franklin, "Reading in the Elementary Schools
of Indianapolis: The Reading Materials," Elemen
tary School Journal, 19:665-88* 741-61, May,
T5I9.------------------
37
Gives a good purpose for the reading program
after the beginning stages- of reading have
been mastered. Most reading on the elementary
level should be for the purpose of vicarious
experience. The pupil’s best education comes
from having normal, varied experience rather
than from the mere memorizing of abstract facts.
Bradley, Martha H., Loretta G. Cahill, and H. L. Tate,
"Acquisition of a Heading Vocabulary," Elemen
tary English Review, 18:19-21, 32, January, 1941. I
Verifies the fact that children can make sig
nificant gains in reading-vocabulary acquisition
over a period as short as two months. Their re
sults Indicate clearly that clarification of
mistaken ideas concerning the meaning of words is
a potent factor in acquiring a vocabulary, while
the using of words in oral sentences tends to
decrease the gains that result from vocabulary
study.
Broening, Angela M., "Abilities Which Contribute to
Effective Reading," Education, 62:11-17, Sep
tember, 1941.
Excellent source for all of the necessary skills
needed in order to become an effective reader.
More studies are needed in order to determine
the needs of children who are retarded readers.
Courtis, S. S., "Analysis of Reading Ability," Journal j
of Educational Research, 4:287-935 November,
1921:-------------------
A very careful analysis of the necessity of dis
tinguishing between the possible variable direc
tions in reading instruction. The writer recom
mends the idea that while scanning, proof reading,
summarizing, and studying would convey the idea
that while reading was involved in these processes,
the training to be given should be directed to
ward gaining control over mental processes other
than the reading mechanism.
38
Daw, Seward E., "The Persistence of Errors in Oral
Reading in Grades Four and Five,” Journal of
Educational Research, 32:81-90, October, 13538.
Valuable for presenting the types of common
errors which will occur during oral reading
lessons. An important study on the frequency
of specific reading errors made by fourth and
fifth grade children.
Dearborn, Walter F., "Motivation Versus 'Control' in
Remedial Reading," Education, 59:1-6, September,
1938.
Helpful in establishing the importance of moti
vation in remedial reading. His conclusion is
that fresh motivation, through the changing of
the set of mind or the intention of the learner,
is a more important factor in remedial reading
than the particular methods and materials of
instruction.
Femald, Grace M., and Helen Keller, "The Effect of
Kinaesthetic Factors in the Development of Word
Recognition in the Case of Non-Readers," Journal
of Educational Research, 4:355-77* December,
T92T.-------------
Demonstrates the value of the kinaesthetic ap
proach in some cases. In all but one of the
cases in the study, progress seemed to have taken
place in four distinct phases of reading.
Gates, Arthur I., "Failure in Reading and Social Mal
adjustment," Journal of the National Education
Association, £5:205, October, 1936.
The source was valuable to this project because
it supplied a list of the possible maladjust
ments which are possible if a child does not
read adequately.
Gellerman, S. W., "Causal Factors in the Reading Diffi
culties of Elementary School Children," Elemen
tary School Journal, 49:523-30* May, 1945^
Excellent discussion of the precipitant and com
plicating factors which cause children to become
39
retarded in reading. It also brings out the
fact that reading is a very composite experience,
which integrates many subtly interrelated vari
ables .
Harris, Albert J., How to Increase Reading Ability.
New York: Longmans, Green and Company, 1949*
582 pp.
An excellent source of information on the re
tarded reader. The book contains chapters deal
ing with every phase of the retarded reader.
Hildreth, Gertrude, Learning the Three R1s,
Minneapolis, NashvilleT Philadelphia: Educa
tional Publishers, Inc., 1947. 897 PP*
Another very good source of information on the
retarded reader. One of the best books avail
able on teaching children to read. Over half
of the book is related to reading.
Kirk, Samuel A., Teaching Reading to Slow Learning
Children. New York: Houghton Mifflin Company,
1940. 225 pp.
Helps people understand the problems of the
slow-learning child. A well written and
easily understood book. Discusses methods of
dealing with the slow-learning child.
Leavell, Ullln W., "Reading Instruction in the Ele
mentary Scheme," Education, 59:7-11 * September,
1938.
Contains an excellent outline of the stages of
reading Instruction. The sooner the individual
develops relatively high degrees of accuracy
in the functional services of reading, the
sooner he will be equipped for the use of this
tool of civilization.
Tinker, Miles A., "The Role of Eye Movements in
Diagnostic and Remedial Reading," School and
Society, 39:147-48, February 13* 1934.
Valuable for establishing the reasons why
training or "pacing" of eye movements may be
40
omitted without lessening the effectiveness of
the instruction. He concludes that faulty eye
movements are merely symptoms rather than causes
of poor reading.
Wilking, S. Vincent, "Personality Maladjustment as a
Causative Factor in Reading Disability," Elemen
tary School Journal, 42:268-79* December, 1941.
This source contains the list of undesirable
personality traits which interfere with normal
reading progress. It also has a very good sum
mary of the causes which lead to reading re
tardation.
Witty, Paul, Reading in Modern Education. Boston:
D. C. Heath and Company, 1$49- 319 pp.
This is a fairly recent book on reading. It
covers trends in American reading instruction,
the role of interest and motive in the reading
process, readiness for reading, and many other
subjects. It was especially valuable in this
project because of its chapter on the correction
and prevention of reading difficulties.
CHAPTER III
SELECTION OP CHILDREN
Many methods have been tried in order to find the
children who most need remedial aid. These have varied
all the way from simple selection by the teacher to
selection by complicated tests. Most teachers do not
have the time nor.the facilities at hand to administer
any thorough testing program. There still remains,
however, the problem of selecting those children who
do need extra help.
There are some commonly accepted techniques which
have been used in identifying retarded readers. Herrick
has listed some ways which have been used:
1. Evaluating the child's reading on the basis
of teacher or parent expectancy.
2. Identifying his skill on the basis of the
accomplishment of his grade or class group.
3* Determining his success in relation to the
norms on a standard or teacher-prepared
reading test.1
1 Virgil E. Herrick, "Selecting the Child in
Need of Special Reading Instruction," Elementary School
Journal, 40:424-427, 1940.
42
Evaluating the child1s reading on the basis of
teacher or parent expectancy. Often times it is
possible for teachers to tell at about what level a
child should be reading. This can be approximately
determined by knowing the capabilities of the child.
If a teacher has a child who is not reading books at
a level commensurate with his grade level, it is ob
vious that something is wrong. Obviously this tech
nique is open to serious criticism. The selection is
not based on any objective data. An effort should be
made to avoid basing selection entirely on the opinion
of the teacher.
Identifying his skill on the basis of the accom
plishment of his grade or class group. Tbis is closely
related to the first method in that the teacher notes
that the child simply Is not reading at his grade
level. It is necessary to base the selection on class
room observation plus other data.
Determining his success in relation to the norms
on a standardized or teacher-prepared reading test. This
is a more objective approach to the selection of a child
for special help. It is necessary for a teacher to
43
avoid comparing children to a grade norm. It would
be better to compare the child with his own capabilities.
By giving children reading tests it is possible to de
termine specific errors in reading. After the types
of errors are discovered, help can be given to correct
them. When selecting tests, be sure to give both a
reading test and a group intelligence test which does
not involve reading. By giving a child both types of
reading tests, a teacher would be in a better position
objectively to judge his actual achievement In compar
ison to his capacity.
A rule-of-thumb to ascertain reading level.
A teacher needs to know at what level a child can find
success In reading. Only If this level Is determined
will it be possible for a child to read and satisfy
all of the criteria for desirable reading behavior
2
when he is reading silently. According to Gellerman,
if a child can secure seventy-five percent comprehen
sion and recognize approximately ninety-five percent
of the words, his proper level of reading has been
determined. After this level has once been deter
mined, it is then possible to build from there. If a
2
Gellerman, o£. cit., p. 527-
44
child is reading at his proper instructional level,
it should be easier to free him from head-movements,
finger-pointing, lip-movements, and the other common
reading faults.
CHAPTER IV
MOTIVATION
The general topic of motivation is extremely
important for the remedial teacher to consider. A child
must be able to see the reason why he Is doing a certain
thing. Especially is this true of the child who is
having difficulty with reading. The general topic is
so important that a chapter has been devoted to it.
I.. APPROACHES TO NON-READERS
Very-closely related to motivation Is the approach
which a teacher uses in interesting a child in reading.
There appear to be several common ingredients in success
ful work with non-readers:
1. Taking the child aside from more capable
learners for remedial lessons.
2. Making a fresh start with new materials.
3. Using novel approaches.
4. Gaining,the child’s full cooperation.
5. Enlisting his interest.
6. Getting him to make positive reactions to
instruction.
7. Beginning at the point where the pupil needs
help.
8. Keeping vocabulary simple.
9. Relating the new learning to meaningful
activities.
10. Giving the child an immediate sense of suc
ceeding.
11. Proceeding at the child's own pace no matter
how slow that may be.
12. Showing infinite patience.1
Talking the child aside from more capable
learners for remedial lessons. A child who is having
difficulty learning to read is often embarrassed by
having to compete with the faster children. It is
wise to take the slower child aside and work with him.
It is not always possible to work with a child indi
vidually because,of lack of time. If this is so, take
a group of retarded readers and work with them. Mfich
good can result from a small group of interested chil
dren.
Making a fresh start with new materials. It is
oftentimes necessary to get completely away from the
1 Hildreth, op. cit., adapted from p. 434.
47
materials that the child has been using. An attempt
should be made to secure materials which the child is
interested in. By following this procedure, it is
possible to get the child to forget his handicaps and
to read to learn more about his particular interest.
Using novel approaches. Instead of making a
chore out of reading, make it a sholwsome, enjoyable
activity. Sometimes it is necessary actually to forget
about books at first. If it is possible, take a field
trip. Talk with the child and get him to enter into
the conversation. If a boy is interested in baseball,
get a book on that subject and discuss it with him.
o
Get away from standard teaching techniques if necessary.
After all, these techniques have apparently been tried
for two or three years to no avail. Be willing to try
new approaches.
Gaining the child1s full cooperation. Before a
teacher can help any child, the full cooperation of
that child must be secured. This is sometimes a rather
difficult thing to do. Sometimes a boy has been fail
ing in reading for years and has learned to loathe it.
It sometimes requires a lot of "selling" on the part
of the teacher in order to get full cooperation.
48
Enlisting his Interest. This is closely related
to securing cooperation. If the teacher talks to the
child, it is possible to discover specific interests.
The interest of the child can usually be obtained by
having him talk and read about things he enjoys doing.
Getting him to make positive reactions to in
struction. In the past, the retarded child may have
had nothing but negative experiences. It Is important
for the remedial teacher to turn these negative exper
iences gradually into positive ones. Proper mental
health of the child is vital. In order for a child to
learn how to read satisfactorily, it is necessary for
him to enjoy it. After years of unsuccessful experi
ences in reading instruction, it Is no wonder that a
child develops negative reactions to reading. It is
part of the teacher's job to help a retarded reader
develop a positive attitude toward reading. These
positive reactions come about best through successful
experiences in the daily work.
The wise teacher always remembers to make in
struction meaningful to the child; to keep In close
touch with the child's own life situation. Otherwise
he does not have an adequate background of experience
49
upon which to base his interpretation. If his back
ground is limited, it is necessary to build it up
through first-hand as well as vicarious experiences.
After this background has been established, it is then
possible for the child to read and comprehend.
Keeping vocabulary simple♦ In order to be
properly motivated, children need to be interested.
In order to be interested, they need to attain success
in reading. Naturally, if a child has been failing in
reading for some time, his vocabulary is likely to be
limited. Vocabulary level should be ascertained.
After it has been determined, it is then possible to
select books which coincide with it. There are many
books on a high interest level, yet using simple voca
bulary to meet the needs of these pupils.
Relating the new learning to meaningful activi-
lties and ideas. This idea is in keeping with the
basic philosophy of education— work from the known to
the unknown. A teacher should attempt to relate what
the child already is familiar with to the new learning
experience. When assigning a new story, the teacher
should build an adequate background through discussion.
This discussion should lead to certain points in the
50
story for which the child already has a background.
of experience. By so relating the new learning situ
ation with what is already known, learning should be
made easier.
Beginning at the point where the pupil needs
help. It is necessary for any teacher of reading to
begin instruction at the level which the child has
attained. Some teachers fail to ascertain this point.
A teacher can do so rather easily by applying the rule-
of-thumb referred to in Chapter III. If a child is
unable to read satisfactorily from one book, then it
becomes necessary to secure another one in which he
can achieve success.
Giving the child an Immediate sense of succeeding.
It is helpful if the child can feel success from the
start. Children gain confidence through having success
ful experiences. These successes do not have to be
especially big at first. It is possible for a child to
gain self-assurance through reading one sentence with
out a mistake. Make the Job of "learning to read" fun.
There are a variety of games that can be played which
will increase the interest of the child. These games
make it possible for him actually to measure his growth.
Some of these games are discussed in Chapter V.
Proceeding at the child *s own pace, no matter
how slow that may be* A teacher should not become
disturbed if a child does not seem to be making
"normal" advancement. Children learn at different
rates. Some children are exceptionally slow and make
very little daily progress. A remedial teacher should
not expect miracles to happen. Be thankful for any
improvement shown and continue to work..
Showing infinite patience. The job of being a
remedial teacher is not an easy one. Progress among
the retarded readers is not always as obvious as it
is with the faster readers. The remedial teacher should
be willing to go over a certain point two or three
s
times, or more, if it is necessary. Never become im
patient because this can quickly destroy any good work
that has been accomplished before.
II. BASIC PRINCIPLES OP EFFECTIVE MOTIVATION
In order for a teacher properly to motivate a
retarded reader, it is necessary to have an understand
ing of the principles underlying this important con
cept. Harris has outlined the basic principles of
52
effective motivation as follows:
1. Arousing motivation.
a. Friendly interest.
b. Sometimes talk over the reading problem,
telling him where he stands.
c. Ask them to find out the uses of reading
in life situations.
2. The remedial teacher as a person.
3. Providing success experiences.
4. Utilizing present interests.
5* Dramatizing progress-progress charts.
a. Number of pages, stories, or books read;
number of new words learned; decrease
in number of errors in oral reading;
number of word families or phonic prin
ciples learned; accuracy of comprehension;
rate of reading; etc.
b. Desirable to have a separate record for
each goal that is to be emphasized in the
remedial program.
6. Avoiding monotony.
7. Transforming drills into games.
a. Fish game.
b. Anagrams and crossword puzzles.
c. Spin the pointer.
d. Baseball.
e. By substituting words for numbers the
game of Bingo becomes transferred into
Word-O.
O
8. Enlisting the cooperation of the family. „
Arousing motivation. Boys and girls are no
different from adults in certain respects. For in
stance, they appreciate a friendly attitude on the part
of their teachers, just as adults appreciate friendli
ness from their associates. The teacher plays an im
portant role in any remedial program. It is his re
sponsibility to set the proper atmosphere, an atmos
phere which is conducive to learning. Before real
help can be given, the child must sense that the teacher
is sincerely interested.
Some teachers hesitate to talk over the reading
problems with the child. It is good practice to talk
about the difficulty sometimes. Let the child know
where he stands. This practice should be used care
fully, of course, but can be quite successful in arous
ing greater interest in reading.
2
Harris,'op. cit., p. 245.
Every teacher realizes, or should realize,
that once most children become actively engaged in
anything, they usually become quite interested in it.
If it is necessary to get a child more interested in
reading, it might be helpful to have him find out the
uses of reading in life situations. For example, ask
the children to jot down all of the uses of reading
they can think of in daily living. Such things as
reading newspapers, signboards, books, magazines,
charts, maps, and graphs will no doubt be suggested by
most pupils. Other ways in which it is possible to put
reading skills into use are in solving word problems
in arithmetic, following directions in recipes, and
reading labels on canned foods. There are, of course,
countless other possibilities where reading is used
in every-day living. Perhaps an activity such as this
will -help to make children realize the importance of
reading.
The remedial teacher as a . person. As has been
inferred earlier, the remedial teacher must be friendly
and take an active interest in the children. The reme
dial teacher must also be patient. The job of teaching,,
no matter on what level it may be, can be enjoyable
55
only if the teacher is interested in it. The remedial
teacher must enjoy working with boys and girls, and
he must be willing to go over the work as many times
as is necessary. To summarize briefly, some of the
many qualities of the remedial teacher are a friendly
interest, kindness, consideration, patience, and an
active interest in his work.
Utilizing present interests. The remedial
teacher should utilize the present interests of the
child who is in need of help in reading. The approach
to reading should be from a field in which the child
has some interest and knowledge. A child will have a
greater incentive to read a book if he is interested
in its contents.
Dramatizing progress: progress charts. Give
the child an opportunity to see the progress being made.
This is an extrinsic form of motivation, but is still
an excellent way to keep interest at a high peak. Have
charts where it is possible to keep track of the number
of pages, stories, or books read. Keep track of the
number of new words learned. Some boys and girls enjoy
keeping their progress in this manner. Have the child
compete with his own past record in the number of errors
56
in oral reading. There are any number of activities
for the ingenious teacher to use in order to keep the
children properly motivated. It might be said that
this type of motivation is not the correct type to use.
It may not be as desirable as intrinsic motivation, but
until the child can grow to realize the importance of
reading in his everyday life situations, it will be
necessary to use external forms of motivation. Later
there may be no need for these extrinsic forms of
motivation. The child may become intrinsically moti
vated to the extent that he will read on his own.
Avoiding monotony. Nothing is so deadening
as the same thing, day after day. A teacher must vary
the program daily. There are a number of possible
activities to use. Some of these activities are dis
cussed in Chapter V. Break up the period so that the
child will have an opportunity to drill, to read orally
for improvement in one of the objectives, and have a
chance for silent reading for enjoyment.
Transforming drills into games. There are a
number of clever devices which aid the teacher in trans
forming drills into enjoyable activity. These games
must be of such a nature that the child can correct
57
himself. They must not require the attention of the
teacher. A number of these games are suggested in
Chapter V of this study. Drill is still necessary in
any learning situation, no matter what is said to the
contrary. However, the main reason for drill is to
clinch the learning so that the child can reeall it
when he has occasion to use it.
Enlisting the cooperation of the family. The
remedial teacher should let the family in on what is
being done to help their child. The parents must know
exactly how the teacher feels about parental help at
home. They should be told that they can do much good
in improving the mental health of the child. The
teacher should counsel with the parents if they are
interfering with the child's reading habits. The
teacher and the parents should understand each other
perfectly and work in close harmony for the good of
the child.
III. SUMMARY ON MOTIVATION
Dearborn says that "fresh motivation through
the changing of the set of mind or the intention of the
learner is a more Important factor in remedial reading
than the particular methods and materials of In-
,,3
struction.
It has been shown that the problem of motivation
is vitally important. It is necessary to motivate the
child properly before there can be any real improvement.
The teacher should free the child from competition
with other members of the class who are faster learners.
The activities should be meaningful and the child should
see a purpose in his reading at all times. The program
should be varied and many of the activities should de
velop from experiences in which the child himself has
an interest. It is necessary that the child achieve
a feeling of success from the start. This will necessi
tate finding his present achievement level and starting
from there.
Lastly, there must be a friendly feeling between
the teacher and the child. If all of these ideas are
incorporated into the program of remedial reading, the
result should be a properly motivated child.
^ Walter F. Dearborn, "Motivation versus ^Control
in Remedial Reading," Education, 59:1> September, 1938*
CHAPTER V
METHODS AND TECHNIQUES OF REMEDIAL INSTRUCTION
After the teacher has discovered the specific
difficulty, or difficulties,/ of a .child, and has properly
i
motivated him, he can commence the actual work of reme
dial instruction. There are, as has been previously
mentioned, a variety of methods to use. The method
selected depends entirely in the child himself, and
his reading problem.
The general characteristics of remedial teaching
have been shown to be:
1. Basing remedial instruction on diagnosis.
2. Starting from what the pupil already knows.
3. Selecting appropriate material.
4. Securing motivation.^
I. METHODS OF REMEDIAL INSTRUCTION
Reference has already been made to some of the
popular methods relative to the teaching of remedial
reading. These methods are (1) kinaesthetic, (2)
1 1 Harris, op. cit., pp. 243-244.
60
phonetic, (3) sound discrimination, (4) visual per
ception, and (5) the experience methpd. The method to
use depends upon the particular child. An attempt
should be made to use as many of the different senses
as possible. For instance, some children learn better
through visual perception, others learn best through
sound discrimination, still others might learn best
those things which they can actually trace with their
fingers. It takes a little experimenting on the part
of the teacher to determine the best method to use.
The kinaesthetic method. This is the method of
Fernald and Keller at the University of California at
Los Angeles. It is Fernald's contention that some
children learn better when they actually trace the word
with their finger. The method commonly-used is:
1. Learning first words— actual trace.
2. Spontaneous sentences— always write from
memory, not from copy.
3. Words in context or story selected by the
child. Expose each word not previously
learned.
4. Apperception of phrases— read by phrases,
not by words.
61
2
5. Silent reading for content.
Fernald and Keller have had some significantly
successful results' using this approach. It may be the
best method to use in extremely retarded cases. The
classroom teacher may discover that actually to spell
out a word helps the retarded reader. It is one way
to increase the sight vocabulary of a child. After the
sight vocabulary has been increased, there may not be
a need for tracing each new word.
The phonetic method. This was the popular
system of teaching reading many years ago. It has been
determined that most children can learn to read without
being introduced formally to phonics. Children who
have been taught the phonic method, may easily become
word readers. However, some children do not seem able
to learn how to read with the usual instruction given
to most children. Many boys and girls are conscious
of phonetics, even though they have not been formally
introduced to it. They recognize that words rhyme and
have other similar sounds. It might be necessary to go
2 Grace M. Fernald and Helen Keller, "The Effect
of Kinaesthetic Factors in the Development of Word Recog
nition in the Case of Non-Readers," Journal of Educa
tional Research, 4:355-56, 1921.
over the various sounds with the child who has not
benefitted from the normal reading instruction. Work
with him until he is able to recognize many of the
common prefixes and suffices independently. After he
has gained some proficiency in recognizing words, give
him interesting books which are appropriate to his read
ing level and let him do some independent reading.
Phonics is one important method in helping retarded
readers. But do not rely solely upon it. Try some of
the other methods, too.
Sound discrimination. Some children seem to
learn best when they have opportunities for discussion.
Give children many chances to read orally. It will
help them to learn to discriminate between the differ
ent sounds. It was formerly believed that if there
was too much oral reading, it would lead to faulty
reading habits. There is little danger of oral reading
interfering with good silent reading habits if the oral
reading is done in order to get meaning. Thought and
meaning can be emphasized just as well in oral reading
3
as they can in silent reading. '
3
Hildreth, o£. clt., p.. 223.
63
Give the children a chance to discriminate be
tween sounds. There are great possibilities of un
covering many faulty ideas by using this method. Chil
dren may note words which have the same beginnings or
endings. They may notice that it is possible to change
words by adding a prefix or suffix. They may note cer
tain words which rhyme. There are any number of exer
cises which can give children the experience of dis
criminating between sounds.
For teachers in need of some new ideas, Russell’s
Reading Aids Through the Grades should prove quite
helpful. It contains two hundred twenty-five remedial
reading activities.
Visual perception. All children can learn
better through the use of effective visual perception
techniques. Give children many opportunities to see
words. Use the blackboard when making explanations.
Give them many chances to see differences in words.
For instance, let them see how many words begin with
"s'". Write words such as see, saw, sat, so, and some
_ -
David H. Russell, Etta E. Karp, and Edward I.
Kelly, Reading, Aids Through the Grades (New York:
Teachers College, Columbia University Press, 1938).
64
on the blackboard. A child learns better if given
daily opportunities to work with words and sentences.
However, do not do the same thing'day after day. Be
willing to try new approaches.
The experience method. This method utilizes
the pupil’s background of experience as an aid in learn
ing to read. Through having much group discussion, it
is possible to write stories. These stories can later
be read to the rest of the members of the group. Read
ing their own stories is good for children because the
vocabulary is bound to be their own. The information
in these stories can be supplemented by books dealing
with the same topic. It could lead to the valuable
activities of using the library card files, the table
of contents, the index of books, and some of the other
objectives of the reading program.
Conclusion. This by no means exhausts the broad
field of methods of teaching retarded readers. This is
sufficient, however, to give an idea of some of the
methods which have been tried. The whole emphasis
seems to be to make reading instruction a meaningful
experience. It should be more a part of the lives of
the individual children. Reading instruction should
65
not be separated from the other subject area fields.
Attempts should be made to integrate reading activities
with the other subjects. The remedial reading teacher
should attempt to link reading instruction with the in
terests of the boys and girls. If a teacher once gets
a child actively participating in the reading program,
it is possible to change the child's whole viewpoint
regarding reading. When a child sees that reading is:
not an end in itself, but merely a way of obtaining en
joyment or information, his progress in reading should
be rapid.
II. IMPROVING READING TECHNIQUES
Although the present emphasis in teaching read
ing seems to be on the meaningful approach, it is still
necessary to give children the opportunity of learning
the various skills necessary in becoming a proficient
reader.
Hildreth has listed several techniques through
which it is possible to make children more effective
readers:
1. Improving word recognition.
2. Applying phonics.
3. Enlarging vocabulary.
4. Widening perception span.
5. Using oral-reading techniques.
6. Increasing speed of reading.
7- Improving comprehension.
8. Improving study-type reading.
Improving word recognition. A pupil will not
become an effective reader until he can attack new
words independently. He must have an understanding of
how to go about pronouncing a new word. Practice is
needed in discriminating between words which are quite
similar. Practice is needed in learning to associate
visual perception with the actual sound and meaning of
the word. Much practice is needed in order for some
children to achieve success in recognising words and
getting their proper meaning.
Harris has suggested several ways a child can
attack an unknown word:
1. He guesses from context, the rest of the
sentence showing him what the missing word
must be.
2. He makes use of the first letter or two and
the general shape or configuration of the
^ Hildreth, op. cit., p. 292.
word.
3. He compares the new word with a similar word
that he knows.
4. He divides the word into large parts which he
already knows.
5. He looks for familiar small words within longer
words.
6. He follows rules of syllabication in dividing
long words.
7. He thinks of a "family" to which the word be
longs .
8. He sounds the word out by groups of letters,
and blends the sounds together.
9. He sounds the word out by letter and then
blends the sounds.
10. He looks the word up in the dictionary and
uses the dictionary’s guide to pronunciation
to interpret the phonetic symbols used.^
There is no need for word study to be boring to
children. They are, or should be, immensely interested
in it because it:
c
Harris, o£. cit., p. 84.
68
1. Is a source of joy to them.
2. Helps them in their other studies.
3- Increases their speaking vocabularies.
4. Helps them to understand the remarks of
older people.
5. Gives them a feeling of success that adds to
7
self-esteem.
It is primarily up to the teacher to discuss the
value of reading with the child. Through discussion he
can be made to see all of these values. It is better if
the ideas come from the child. This can be done if the
teacher is skillful.
Applying phonics. Teachers should introduce
phonics into the program very carefully. It Is possible
to make a child too conscious of word construction if it
Is stressed too strongly. The English language does not
lend itself to phonetics very easily. There are too
many exceptions for children to learn. However, teach
ing the child the various sounds the letters have can
7
Martha H. Bradley, Loretta G. Cahill, and
H. L. Tate, "Acquisition of a Reading Vocabulary,"
Elementary English Review, 18:21, 1941.
69
be very beneficial. Bring in phonics whenever they can
be used advantageously. For instance, if a child
falters over the pronunciation of the word "transporta
tion" in his reading, the teacher might well have the
child sound it out. This type of activity can be very
helpful. Do not rely on it as the only method of help
ing children to learn how to attack new words.
Enlarging vocabulary. There are many ways which
a teacher can use to help children enlarge their voca-
8
bularies. Hildreth has suggested the following acti
vities for enlarging children's vocabularies:
1. Keep individual word lists. It is very help- ;
ful to a child to keep an individual word list. This
list should consist of all the words on which the child
has needed special attention. He should be trained to
refer to his vocabulary list whenever he has some free
time.
2. Arrange words in alphabetical order. It is
good practice to have the children put lists of words
into alphabetical order from time to time. It teaches
them to be more conscious of the formation of the letters.
® Hildreth, op. cit., pp. 302-305.
70
3- Complete sentences. A child can increase
his vocabulary a great deal by completing sentences.
This exercise gives practice in actually using words
in a real situation. It could easily lead to the use
of the dictionary in order to find the right word for
a particular situation.
4. Select words of similar derivation. It Is
a worthwhile experience to have children find as many
words of similar derivation as they can. Children soon
become interested in activities such as this.
5. Match words and definitions. Work with pre
fixes and suffixes can also aid children to Increase
their vocabulary. It helps them to realize that many
different words can be formed from a single word merely
by adding a prefix or suffix.
6. Read to find the answer to a specific ques
tion. All reading should be done for a purpose. It
is helpful if the teacher has the children read to find
the answer to a specific question. This practice makes
it possible for the children to have a purpose for
reading.
7. Use the dictionary. The use of the diction
ary should be encouraged. Lessons dealing specifically
with the use of the dictionary are helpful. After a
71
child becomes accustomed to using the dictionary,
its use becomes second nature to him. There is pro
bably no better way to increase the vocabulary level.
8. Classify cards. Many experiences come up
in the class which require classifying in some card
index system, or in alphabetizing in one way or an
other. It is good to let the children gain experience
in keeping a card index file, or in filing the chil
drens’ papers.
In order for children to become effective readers
they need to have a large sight vocabulary. If a child
does not have a sufficiently large vocabulary, it is
hard for him to read adequately. He always has to ask
the teacher for words. In order to avoid this, the
teacher should give the children many opportunities for
expanding their vocabulary.
Widening perception span. Many children become
word-by-word readers if they are allowed to do so. If
this practice continues, reading may become very labor
ious to them. Teachers must teach children to increase
their perception span so that they are able to read by
phrases.
It must be pointed out to children, however,
72
that not all reading is done in the same fashion.
They should learn to adapt their reading method to
their purpose for reading. Some of the common pur
poses for reading are (l) reading for information,
(2) reading for enjoyment, and (3) reading technical
material. It is Inadvisable to use the same method
of reading in all of these instances. Some will re
quire reading at a slower rate. In general, however,
children should be taught to read by phrases.
Various mechanical devices have been developed
to aid reading instructors in their reading program.
However, these mechanical devices are far too expensive
to have in the average classroom. It has been shown,
moreover, that training in reading by phrases can take
place without these devices. The constant stressing
of meaningful reading has been found to aid the percep
tion span. Stress reading smoothly and reading by
phrases. These and similar exercises should result in
improved perceptual span.
Using oral reading techniques. It was formerly
thought that oral reading was a hindrance bather than
an aid, in improving silent reading. It is now felt
that oral reading techniques can be used very effec
tively in putting across certain points.
Much value may follow through applying oral reading
techniques in the classroom. For instance, it is
possible to teach children to read more smoothly. They
can also learn the proper pronunciation and enunciation
of words. Teachers should always stress reading with
a natural voice. Children should be given an opportunity
also of discovering the various phrases a sentence natur
ally divides into. There are many more oral reading
techniques a teacher can use in order to improve
reading.^
Increasing speed of reading. Children some
times reach the intermediate grades still reading at
a very slow rate. The signs of slow readers are ob
vious. Such noticeable things as lip-movement, finger-
pointing, long fixation pauses, overdoing phonetic
sounding, losing the place, and many others, all give
hints to the teacher that specific help is needed.
It has been demonstrated that speed in reading should
be adjusted to the type of reading. Speed will take
care of itself when a child is properly motivated,
when he has simple material to read, when he is able
9
.Ibid., pp. 311-313.
74
to recognize new words and has an adequate list of
sight words, when he reads meaningfully with enjoyment,
and does a lot of reading. It has been found that much
practice with material, which interests the children,
material which contains few vocabulary difficulties is
the best way of increasing speed. A mere reminder
10
once or twice a week should prove sufficient.
Improving comprehension. The most important
point to consider when trying to improve a child’s com
prehension is that the material be within the pupil's
understanding. A pupil is able to comprehend reading
raaterfal when he can discuss what he reads intelligently,
when he can draw conclusions, evaluate, and summarize.
The best method to improve comprehension is giving a
child specific questions to be answered through his
reading. Another technique is to read to a child until
the interesting part of a story is reached, and then
have him read it himself. Have the children prepare
reports on some particular interest, and give them in
class. The whole stress in improving reading compre
hension is to make the material more meaningful. Some
times it is necessary to enrich the background before
10
Ibid., pp. 314-15-
75
adequate comprehension can take place. Make sure that
the material has meaning and is within the understand
ing of the child.11
Improving study-type reading. When assigning
a specific question to a student, make sure that the
student understands what the problem is. Make certain
that there are books, in which he can find the answer,
on a suitable vocabulary level. Here, again, it is
best If the child can answer questions on something in
which he is really interested. Here, too, the stress
should be on the meaningful approach.
Conclusion. There are probably other methods
to use in order to improve reading techniques. These,
in the main, are the commonly used methods. It is
important to make all reading instruction meaningful.
This should be the primary concern of all teachers of
reading, to make sure that the children understand
why they are doing a certain activity. This meaningful
approach, plus the reading techniques, should result
In more effective readers.
11 Ibid., pp. 320-323.
76
III. ACTIVITIES FOR THE REMEDIAL CLASS
As has been determined, the remedial teacher
has to be rather ingenious. It is sometimes rather
difficult to get and hold the interest and attention of
retarded readers. The teacher oftentimes must resort
to extrinsic forms of' motivation.
There are a number o.f worthwhile activities in
which such children may engage. Some possibilities
are:
1. Lively games with phrase cards— to gain
speed in recognizing groups of words.
2. Individual words on flash cards— to gain
proficiency in recognizing the word as a
whole.
3. Put stars in vocabulary booklets for each
new word learned.
4. Match words with pictures in order to learn
12
enough words to read a primer or easy book.
Other possibilities for recreational reading include
the following:
12
Mildred Evans Zambon, ’ 'Audio-Visual Aids
to Reading," Instructor, 55:29, October, 1946.
77
1. Make up marionette plays.
2. Book reports, utilizing the opaque projector.
3. Lotto with words.
4. Chart reading.
5* Word games both commercial and home-made.
6. Reading from one of the popular children’s
newspapers.
7- Reading from picture cards (magazine pictures
mounted on colored cardboard with typewritten
stories pasted below.)
8. Silent reading in library books.
13
9. Dramatizing stories read.
All of these activities are, more or less, self
explanatory. They all emphasize activity which the
children can carry on by themselves. That is the im
portant consideration for a teacher when selecting an
activity; can the children do it by themselves.
Hildreth mentions a number of activities to
improve reading:
1. Take trips and naturewalks with the children.
2. Visit a store, museum, farm or factory,
parks, and gardens.
13
Loc. cit.
?8
3. Encourage the care of pets.
4. Tell and dramatize stories.
5. Memorize Jingles, or poems.
6. Compose a letter.
7. Study pictures In advertisements.
8. Make a picture album and label it.
9. Encourage oral description of a series of
pictures.
10. Build an Indian village or Dutch house in
miniature.
11. Make puppets for a puppet show or for the
story of "Hansel and Gretel," or other folk
tales and fairy tales.
12. Make costumes to dramatize a Pilgrim story.
13. Adapt reading selections to the period of
the year, the holidays, and seasons, or a
unit of work the children are carrying on
14
in their regular classroom.
/
This list should provide many ideas for the
• remedial teacher in meeting the need for enriching the
reading program. All of these activities encourage
free group discussion and could lead to many worthwhile
14
Hildreth, op. cit., pp. 438-439*
f
79
reading experiences.
IV. THE OPAQUE PROJECTOR
For schools fortunate enough to have one, the
opaque projector can prove quite valuable as a teaching
aid. There are a number of situations where it can be
used. Zambon has suggested the following possibilities:
1. Flash card recognition
2. Reversals.
3.
Noticing similarities.
4. Reading for emphasis.
5.
Phonics.
6. Comprehens ion.
7.
Seat work study.
8. Choral reading.
9. Charts.^
Flash card recognition. It Is possible to flash
words on the screen at any desired speed. The children
try to recognize the word. This is good practice in
recognizing words as a whole rather than in parts. This
same procedure can be used with phrases. Give the chil
dren chances to read groups of words.
^ Zambon, op. cit., p. 7 6.
8 0
Noticing reversals. This is especially good
*
for children who are having trouble with reversals.
Pick out words which come under this category, words
such as on— no, saw— was, and flash them on the screen.
This gives excellent practice in learning to differen
tiate between these troublesome words.
Noticing similarities. Pick out groups of .words
which are quite similar, words such as that, these, there,
three; want, went, were, warm; see, saw, say, said;
ran, read, run, ride; horse, house, home; come, came;
run, ran; three, there. These words confuse many re-
! tarded readers. It is necessary to drill on differen
tiating between them. The opaque projector offers an
excellent chance for drill.
Reading for emphasis. It is possible to flash
sentences, or even a short story, on the screen and
let the children read for emphasis. This is very good
practice in pronunciation and enunciation. The chil
dren can learn the proper way to read. This method has
the advantage of having everyone's attention on a
, central location. It is a good method to use in a
J group.
81
Phonics. It is even possible to have a lesson
in phonics using the opaque projector. A teacher can
prepare a series of words differing only in the initial
consonant, the final consonant, or the middle vowel.
Examples of these would be: bad, bat; sit, bit; black,
back; most, must; or foot, food. It is one way of
using a visual aid to present a phonics lessdn^
Comprehension♦ The opaque projector offers an
excellent opportunity for lessons in comprehension. A
short paragraph can be flashed on the screen, and fol
lowed up with questions to see if the group got the
meaning.
Seat work study. The teacher can flash some
exercises from a workbook on the screen. This is
sometimes a help to the busy teacher.
Choral reading. Easily read poems flashed on
the screen are an effective means for getting every
child to participate. The weaker readers can learn
the proper inflections from the stronger ones. This
is a valuable experience for children to have.
Charts. Another use for the opaque projector
could be to flash on the screen charts which have been
82
thought out by the children. It is sometimes very
helpful to children if they have something in front
of them to serve as a guide. An example of a group
reading chart might be:
1. Read the pages in your book.
2. Write the new words in your notebook.
3* Look them up in the dictionary.
4. Write answers to the questions.
5. Read a library book.
1 f t
6. Draw a picture about the story.
V. OTHER VISUAL AIDS
Educators are more and more beginning to realize
that visual materials in the classroom are a great aid
to more understanding. The blackboard is the oldest
visual aid used in the schools today. It Is still one
of the most popular methods. Some teachers should take
more advantage of the possibilities it offers.
Another excellent plan is to mount some colorful
"clue pictures" with a corresponding word printed below
each picture. The words selected are the more difficult
ones. After a week’s time, cover the picture with a
16
Harris, 0£. cit., p. 115*
83
piece of paper, and see if the child can recognize
the word without the picture. This is a good way to
17
increase the reading vocabulary of retarded readers.
Another fine visual aid is the motion picture
projector. This medium is yearly becoming more popu
lar. Many school districts have large film libraries
where it is possible for teachers to secure films on
a variety of subjects. They serve as one way to build
up the background and interest of the children.
The use of strip films has become more popular.
This is a particularly effective means because it is
possible to discuss the different parts at great length.
It is an excellent means of starting group discussion.
There are other visual aids such as maps, charts,
and graphs, but enough has been said to illustrate that
audio-visual materials are coming into widespread use.
More teachers are taking advantage of them than ever
before as an aid to teaching. Keep in mind, though,
that these visual aids are merely aids to teachers, and
not substitutes for them.
17
‘ Zambon, loc. cit.
84
VI. ROUTINE FOR THE REMEDIAL CLASS i
|
!
Establishing the routine of the class is up to i
i
the teacher. There are any number of possible daily
schedules to use. The classroom teacher should con
sider several things when arranging the program. The
best readers in the class do not need so much drill in
the reading skills. Their main need is an enriched
background. The best way to enrich their background
is to have an adequate room library with many good
books. These books should cover a variety of subjects.
They should be changed frequently.
The average or middle group needs a certain
amount of time with the teacher. Try to schedule the
time In such a manner that this group will have at
least one day with the teacher. This one day can be
spent most profitably in more development on some
specific skill. This week by week development of
skills will aid in the eventual mastery of the goals
or objectives which have been set up.
Be sure to leave at least two days per week
for oral work with the retarded readers. It is neces
sary to do this because these children have not yet
learned to work independently. If a teacher allowed
them to read quietly to themselves, it more than
likely would mean much wasted time.
Suggested weekly schedule. The following is a
suggested weekly schedule. It has been found to work
quite satisfactorily for the writer in most instances.
It must be understood, however, that there are many
possible daily schedules which are available to teachers.
It is up to the individual teacher to select that one
which best fits the needs of the class.
TABLE IV
SUGGESTED WEEKLY SCHEDULE
Group Monday Tuesday Wednes. Thursday Friday
1 New story Library Written Oral Library
2 Oral New story Oral Written Library
3
Written Oral New story Library Oral
Grouping in the class. Most successful. teachers
find that it is better to split the class into three or
four reading groups, depending upon the general spread
of the class. In most instances, three groups will
suffice. This particular schedule makes it possible for
86
each group to have time available for reading new
stories, for written work, and for oral work with
the teacher.
Using many textbooks. The era of using one
textbook for the whole class is past. Because of the
great spread in ability in each classroom, it is ad
visable to select three different sets of readers.
Every school district has a library, or has access to
one, in which it is possible to select more than one
set of basic readers. The criteria the teacher should
use in the selection of these books are the achievement
level and main interests of the children.
The top readers would probably have a set which
is comparable to the grade level in which they are.
The middle group would probably have a reader
with a high interest level for that group of children,
but with slightly less difficult vocabulary.
It is necessary for the teacher to use judgment
when selecting the reader for the slower children. The
teacher must be careful to select a set that has some
interest to the children, and yet is on a suitable
vocabulary level. A rule-of-thumb key for ascertaining
the reading level has been suggested in Chapter III, to
help teachers select the proper textbooks. If a child
87
can secure seventy-five percent comprehension and -
recognize approximately ninety-five percent of the
words, the book may be said to be at his achievement
level. This is a helpful rule for teachers to re
member.
Naming the groups. Usually it is a better
procedure to have the children select some name for
their group. The purpose of this is that it tends to
break down any feeling of inferiority which may occur.
The children in the low group will know, of course,
that they are in the slowest group without the teacher
telling them. This does not seem to make any difference
in most instances. It probably is better procedure to
select names such as the bluebirds, yellow-birds, and
red-birds rather than the traditional groups one, two
and three.
Daily schedule. The teacher should give much
thought to the daily routine of the class. It should
be arranged in such a manner that the children have an
opportunity to do different types of activities. The
teacher must also remember that it is important to
motivate children and clarify directions before leaving
them alone for independent work. Some of the methods
a teacher may use to motivate the children have al
ready been discussed in considerable' detail in Chap
ter IV. One possibility which was not mentioned was
in regard to introducing a new stoiy- to a group of
children. Very often the stories themselves have pic
tures which illustrate what takes place. Have the
children try to guess what will occur by looking at
the pictures. Before leaving the new story group, re
view the new words which occur in the story, making
sure that the pronunciations and meanings are clear.
Then give the children some purpose for reading the
story. This is usually in the form of a question which
may be answered by reading the story. Also, before
leaving this group be sure to ask for questions. Re
view again the standards for proper behavior. Remind
them that they are free to go to the reading corner to
get a browsing book when they complete the assignment.
This procedure for introducing a new story is the same
for all of the groups.
While the teacher is assigning a lesson to one
group, the other groups should be quietly reading their
browsing or reading books. Classroom management of
course is one of the teacher’s main concerns, and re
quires much teacher-pupil planning.
89
After the teacher introduces the new story to
one group, the written work for another group is
assigned. This written work should he of such a
nature that it gives practice in one of the objectives
which have been set up. The teacher has many references
for exercises in seat work. This seat work should be
of real value, and not mere "busy work." Many of the
reading series have teaching manuals. These manuals
give directions on motivation, purposes of reading, and
other things, as well as many exercises. Many teachers
like to use workbooks. Workbooks are put out by com
mercial companies. The commercial companies seek the
advice of the leading experts in the particular sub
jects covered, so the exercises are usually good. Some
teachers like to run off copies of the exercises on a
hectograph machine. This procedure saves the teacher
much time in lesson planning. The children usually enjoy
doing lessons in this form, too.
A teacher can also find excellent activities in
the children's weekly newspapers. Some schools subscribe
to these newspapers and distribute them among the vari
ous classes. In other schools it is necessary for the
children to subscribe themselves. These newspapers
are very inexpensive and contain much news of interest
90
to children. The teacher should encourage the class
members to subscribe if the school does not handle it.
Another excellent source for written work is
the books written by the authorities in the field of
reading. Usually such books contain a chapter on read
ing activities designed to give children specific
training on some phase of reading.
In assigning the written work the teacher should
go over the lesson with the group. Instructions should
be explicitly given as to why they are doing the lesson,
its purposes, and any other relevant information. In
other words, it is necessary for the c.hildren to under
stand exactly what is expected by the teacher. Here,
again, it is necessary to remind the children to get
browsing books upon completion of the lesson.
After assigning the new story and written work,
the teacher then proceeds to the group which is to
have oral reading. The actual plan of an oral lesson
should come from the list of objectives. There are
many things in which children need training. It is
not necessary to mention any specific point here be
cause an excellent list of objectives has already been
given in the review of related literature. Each day
the teacher should select some objective and direct the
91
reading lesson in such a manner that the children
will have experience with it.
Dividing the class time. A teacher should
learn to give Instructions carefully and quickly. Un
fortunately most schools are still set up in such a
manner that a time-table must be adhered to. In order
to get the maximum amount of good from the lesson, the <
teacher should attempt to divide the period into three
main parts: (l) assignments, (2) oral reading, and
(3) evaluation. The amount of time spent in each sec
tion again depends upon the individual teacher. Most
successful teachers of reading usually spend about
twenty minutes assigning the work, twenty-five minutes
in working with a group, and fifteen minutes in evalua
tion.
Of course, many occasions come up during the
day when the teacher is asked to give some specific
instruction to a child. This is as it should be. Read
ing instruction should always be going on because it is
so closely related to the other fields of learning.
Browsing books♦ Each classroom teacher should
see to it that there are many books, besides the read
ers, in the room. These books should cover many differ
ent subjects. Children in the intermediate grades enjoy :
92
reading adventure stories, pet and animal stories,
mystery stories, science and nature stories, and sport
stories, to name a few. An attempt should be made to
get some books.which the retarded readers can read and
enjoy. It is important to do this if the retarded
reader is to improve.
Of course, there should also be many books
dealing with the Social Studies unit the class is
working on. Here again the teacher should make sure
that some of the books are suitable for the retarded
readers. As has already been mentioned, it is neces
sary for the slower pupils to feel that they are ac
cepted by the group. Be sure not to overlook the slow
children when assigning specific tasks. It might be
necessary to guide these children to the proper book,
but it will pay off later when they learn to do the
work independently. It makes a child proud when he
contributes some useful bit of information to the dis
cussion. However, it sometimes takes a lot of skillful
manipulating on the part of the teacher to get a child
to contribute.
CHAPTER VI
MEASURING PROGRESS
In order to check progress that is being made
in the remedial program, it is necessary to devise
some testing measures. Such measures can be classified
into three main divisions: (l) progress charts, (2)
tests, and (3) other methods of evaluation.
I. PROGRESS CHARTS
There are many different types of progress
charts. The clever teacher can think up many ways of
helping children measure their progress. Harris has
suggested a few types which have been tried:
1. The thermometer chart.
2. The skyscraper chart.
3-
The race-track chart.
4. The map chart.
5-
The bar graph.
6. The bookcase chart.
7- The basket or ship chart.
8. The line graph.'1 '
1 Harris, op. cit., pp. 252-253-
94
The thermometer chart. This device is in the
form of a thermometer. If possible, it is a good, ex
perience to have the child make his own chart. If he
is not artistic, either the teacher or some other art
istically talented child can help him. This is a par
ticularly useful chart for recording a cumulative re
sult, such as the number of pages read or number of
words learned.
The skyscraper chart. Each time a child finishes
a unit, he fills a window in the skyscraper. The ob
jective is to fill in all of the windows.
The race-track chart. In this particular chart,
progress is recorded by moving some small object, such
as a miniature auto or horse around the track. Children
usually take great pride in seeingg who will be first
around the track.
The map chart. In this chart a trip by airplane
across the country or to the North Pole represents suc
cessive good lessons.
The bar graph. This Is an especially good graph
because it can be utilized by the whole group. Each child
has a line, and fills In another space as he completes
each unit.
95
The bookcase chart. This is an especially good
chart for encouraging more free reading. The child
draws a large, empty bookcase. As he finishes each
book, he draws another book in the bookcase. Make the
bookcase large enough so that the books can be drawn
in various colors.
The basket or ship chart♦ In this chart each
child draws a large basket or ship on colored paper and
cuts it out. Each.child puts his name on his own ship
or basket. Then paste it on a piece of cardboard in
such a way as to leave a little pocket. As he finishes
a story or book, he places the name of the book on a
slip of paper and places it in the pocket of his basket
or ship.
The line graph. This is best adapted for re
cording progress in speed and accuracy. It records
progress week by week, making it easy to see improve
ment .
There are other types of progress charts, but
these should be sufficient to give the teacher some
indea of their possibilities and use. Progress charts
should prove quite helpful in stimulating interest in
reading.
96
A daily chart should be kept on each child in
the room. If this is done, it is possible to have an
objective measure of the daily work. The children should
get into the habit of putting new words they read into
a vocabulary notebook. From time to time they should
review these words to see if they have the pronuncia
tion and meaning clearly in mind. It is possible to
increase a child's vocabulary a great deal if this pro
cedure is followed. Words learned in this fashion
should become a real part of the child's sight voca
bulary.
II. A TESTING PROGRAM
Testing is an extremely important part of the
program. A number of studies have been made to try
to determine the value of testing and grading to the
total educative process. Some of the findings are
pertinent and every teacher should become familiar
with them.
Making up reading tests. Many teachers have
the mistaken idea that if a child seems to be reading
at an "average" rate of speed, his reading is satis
factory in every respect. This is not necessarily the
case. The teaching of reading may be divided into two
97
general classifications, oral and silent reading.
There are a number of subheadings under each of these
categories. It is important for the person who is
making out a test to know that the ability to engage
in one type of reading does not guarantee the ability
to engage in all of the other facets of reading with
2
equal ability.
Oral reading. Before taking up what a good
reading test should be, it might be wise to review the
newer methods of teaching oral and silent reading. As
has been mentioned earlier in the project, oral reading
is no longer considered a hindrance to developing good
silent reading habits. Harris has listed some sugges
tions for the classroom teacher. These suggestions can
be a great help in assisting children in becoming
better readers. Harris has listed these possibilities
as follows:
1. Taking turns in a small group.
2. Individual reading to the teacher.
3. Finding and reading answers to questions.
4. Audience reading.
A. S. Artley, "The Appraisal of Reading Compre
hension," Journal of Educational Psychology, 3^:59# 19^3*
0
98
5. Choral reading.
o
6. Reading parts in radio scripts or plays.
Any teacher of reading should see many possi
bilities in this list. The ideas offer many oppor
tunities for the children to express themselves. Ac
tivities in any school room should tend more and more
to develop the individual child. The best way to do
this is to let him express himself. Let the children
locate answers to questions in books and read them
to the class. Let the children become familiar with
some story and then read it to the class. Try choral
reading and radio plays. Most teachers are pleasantly
surprised with the results achieved by children. The
teacher must give children the opportunity to express
themselves.
Silent reading. There have been a number of
changes, too, in the teaching philosophy of silent
reading procedures. One of the tendencies now is to
have the children think in terms of specific kinds of
reading. Teachers should plan their lessons in order
to improve these particular kinds of reading skills.
3
Harris, o£. clt., pp. 85-8 7.
One lesson should be designed to Improve ability at
locating answers to specific questions, another should
be designed to give the children practice in finding
the central idea of a selection, another to develop
4
the ability to remember the sequence of events. Each
lesson should be of such a nature that the children
are able to improve in all of the different areas which
make up the silent reading objectives.
There is also a trend in the newer practices of
teaching silent reading to increase the amount of and
to broaden the scope of the reading done in the schools.
Children should learn to consider reading as an impor
tant means of broadening themselves. Schools should
stress reading for enjoyment and encourage children
to read more books on a variety of subjects.
Making out or selecting reading tests. Whether
a teacher is interested in making out a reading test
or in merely locating a good one, there are a number
of considerations to think about. It is necessary to
determine whether the particular test really tests the
desired skill. For instance, many tests are not really
^ Ibid., p. 88.
^ Loc. cit.
100
valid reading tests because they test other items
besides reading. This, of course, is not intentional
but it is sometimes very difficult to select a test
which is actually testing a specific skill.
Alden, Sullivan, and Durrell say that an ade
quate test of reading comprehension should be:
1. One that requires a number of different
types of responses.
a. Ability to infer.
b. Ability to.organize.
c. Ability to select the main idea in a
paragraph or longer selection.
d. Ability to select important details.
e. Ability to judge relevancy of material
f. Ability to determine the meanings of
words in contextual settings.
g. Ability to interpret.
h. Ability to sense the mood, tone, and
intent expressed by the writer.
i. Ability to generalize.
2. These researches point out the need for
reading tests placing more emphasis upon
diagnosis.
a. Must be more specific. Must know, for
101
Instance, more than just the fact that
he comprehends well or poorly, but that
he comprehends well or poorly in his
tory, literature, or algebra,
b. Knowing, for example, that adequate com
prehension in history requires the
abilities, among others, to secure in
formation, to organize data, to inter
pret findings, and to understand the
specialized terms and concepts, permits
one to devise an instrument that will
appraise strengths and weaknesses.
These strengths and weaknesses can then
be translated into pupil needs, which,
in turn, furnish the basis for adequate
6
instruction.
If teachers keep in mind what it is that they
want to test, it is possible to provide a more adequate
testing program.
^ Alden, et al., op. cit., p. 32.
102
III. OTHER METHODS OP EVALUATION
There are some other good ways in which it is
possible to measure a child’s progress. Witty has
listed some of them as (1) observation by the teacher,
(2) check lists, (3) studies of vocabulary, (4) inter
views, (5) self-appraisal conferences, and (6) cumu-
7
lative records.
Observation by the teacher. The teacher is in
a good position to note any progress. After working
with retarded readers for a period of time, the teacher
should be able to see definite signs of improvement.
Check lists. Check lists are valuable in deter
mining progress because they are easy to use. They
provide for putting a mark after a particular reading
difficulty which has been found to occur. These check
marks should decrease as the training period progresses
Check lists taken before and after the training period
should show tangible evidences of improvement.
Studies of vocabulary. Teachers should continu
ally note the child's use of vocabulary in conversation
7
Witty, op. cit.
103
and in written work. The use of vocabulary tests may
be quite helpful too.
Interviews. Sometimes teachers find it helpful
to have interviews with parents and other teachers in
order to determine the amount and nature of improvement.
Sometimes parents or other teachers are able to see
marked progress.
Self-appraisal conferences. It is helpful to
get the opinion of the child, too, in regard to im
provement. The child should feel conscious of his
progress. If the program has been carried on properly
he should also be able to note what his greatest needs
in reading are. Do not fail to talk over the problem
with the child.
Conclusion. These suggestions should give a
teacher some good ideas as to how best to evaluate the
progress being made by the retarded readers. As has
been shown, a good evaluation should contain both ob
jective data (consisting of reading tests, check lists,
and cumulative records) and additional information
(supplied mainly through such things as studies of
vocabulary, studies, interviews, and self-appraisal
10k
conferences). It is not necessary for a teacher to
use all of these techniques in every case. However,
he should become familiar with all of them in order
to be able to put them into use when the need arises.
B I B L I O G R A P H Y
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Adams, Pay, Lillian Gray, and Dora Reese, Teaching
Children to Read. New York: The Ronald Press
Company, T^k'W. 525 PP.
Artley, A. S., "The Appraisal of Reading Comprehen
sion,*1 Journal of Educational Psychology, 34:
55-6O, January ,~T943.
Betts, Emmett Albert, The Prevention and Correction
of Reading Difficulties. Evanston, Illinois:
Row, Peterson and Company, 1936. 402 pp.
Bond, Guy L., and Eva Bond Wagner, Teaching the Child
to Read. New York: The Macmillan Company, 1950.
TR>7 PP. -
Bradley, Martha H., Loretta G. Cahill, and H. L. Tate,
"Acquisition of a Reading Vocabulary," Elementary
English Review, 18:19-21, January, 1941.
Broening, Angela M., Frederick H. Law, Mary S.
Wilkinson, and Caroline L. Ziegler, Reading for
Skill, Practice Exercises for Remedial Reading
and' Library Ski ITT New York: Noble and Noble,
193b. §99 PT-
Broom, M. E., Mary Alice Allen Duncun, Dorothy Eraig,
and Josephine Stuever, Effective Reading Instruc
tion in the Elementary School. New York: McGraw-
Hill Book Company, Inc.7 1942. 482 pp.
Cason, Eloise Boeker, Mechanical Methods for Increas
ing the Speed of ReadingT New York: Bureau of
Publications, Teachers College, Columbia Univer
sity, 1943. 80 pp.
Dearborn, Walter P., "Motivation Versus 'Control' in
Remedial Reading," Education, 59:1-6, September,
1938.
Dolch, Edward William, A Manual for Remedial Reading.
Champaign, Illinois: The' Garrand Press, 1945.
464 pp.
107
Durrell, Donald D., Improvement of Basic Reading
Abilities. New York: World Book Company, 1940.
¥07 ppT
Pernald, Grace M., Remedial Techniques In Basic School
Subjects. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company,
Inc., 1943. 349pp.
, and Helen Keller, "The Effect of Kinaesthetic
Factors In the Development of Word Recognition
in the Case of Non-Readers," Journal of Educa
tional Research, 4:355-77# December, T§2T~.
Gann, Edith, Reading Difficulty and Personality Organ
ization. New York: King’s Crown Press, 1945*
149 PP.
Gellerman, S. W., "Causal Factors in the Reading Diffi
culties of Elementary School Children," Elementary
School Journal, 49:523-30, May, 1949-
Gray, William S., editor, "Reading in Relation to
Experience and Language," Supplementary Educa
tional Monographs. Chicago, Illinois: ¥he
University of Chicago Press, No. 58, December,
1944. 226 pp.
Harris, Albert J., How to Increase Reading Ability.
New York: Longmans, Green and Company, 1949*
582 pp.
Herrick, Virgil L., "Selecting the Children in Need
of Special Reading Instruction," Elementary
School Journal, 40:424-27, February, 1940.
Hildreth, Gertrude, Learning the Three Rfa. Minnea
polis, Nashville, Philadelphia: Educational
Publishers, Inc., 1947* 897 PP*
, and Josephine L. Wright, Helping Children to
lead. New York: Bureau of Publications, Teac15¥
ers College, Columbia University, 1940. 90 PP*
Klapper, Paul, Teaching Children to Read. New York:
D. Appleton and Company, 1915* 213 PP.
Lamoreaux, Lillian A., and Doris May Lee, Learning to
Read Through Experience. New York: D. Appleton-
Century Company, Inc., 1943- 204 pp.
108
McKee, Paul, The Teaching of Reading in the Elementary
School. New York: Houghton MiffTinCompany,
1948." 622 pp.
Monroe, Marion, Children Who Cannot Read. Chicago,
Illinois: The University of Chicago Press,
1932. 205 pp.
_______ and Bertie Backus, Remedial Reading. New York:
Houghton Mifflin Company, 1937- 171 PP*
Robinson, Helen Mansfield, Why Pupils Fall in Reading.
Chicago, Illinois: The University of cEicago
Press, 1946. 257 pp.
Russell, David H., Etta E. Karp, and Edward I. Kelly,
Reading Aids Through the Grades. New York:
Bureau of Publications, Teachers College, Columbia
University, 1938*
Strang, Ruth, and Florence C. Rose, Problems in the. -
Improvement of Reading in High School "and College.
Revised Edition” Lancaster, Pennsylvania: The
Science Press Printing Company, 1940. 423 PP*
Wrightstone, J. Wayne, "Appraisal of Growth in
Reading," Educational Research Bulletin of the
Bureau of Reference, Research and StaTTstics.
New York: Board of Education,”November, 1941,
Number 2. 42 pp.
Zambon, Mildred Evans, 1 1 Audio-Visual Aids to Reading,"
Instructor Magazine, 55:29, October, 1946.
I
APPENDIX
BOOK REPORT
A
S
APPENDIX A
BOOK REPORT
PUPIL’S NAME______________________________ AGE
GRADE_____________________ DATE_______________
Name of Book__________________________________
NAME OP STORY
Answer as many questions as you can.
1. What is the story about? (Indians,
war, grown-ups, knights, the sea,
fairies, other lands, children,
animals, etc.)
2. Which character or person do you like?
3-
Name one other character in the story.
4. Is it a story for girls, grown-ups,
boys, or for everybody?
5*
What place does the story tell about?
6. Would you care to read the story again?
7- Who wrote the story?
Ill
APPENDIX A (continued)
8. Is it a story that might have happened?
9f Did you read the entire hook yourself?
10. Was it difficult to read?
11. Is the story funny, sad, exciting,
dull, instructive, or just interesting?
12. What kind of a story is it? (History,
adventure, science, mystery, home
life, legends, travel, etc.;
APPENDIX B
BOOKS FOR RETARDED READERS
APPENDIX B
BOOKS FOR RETARDED READERS
The following books for retarded readers are all
listed in Books for Elementary Schools, issued by the
Oregon State Library. The books are arranged in order
of vocabulary grade level, with interest grade level
shown in the next column.
Author Title
Voca
bulary
grade
level
Interest
grade
level
Buckingham Play Days, A Primer
0.5
1
Dearborn Country Days
0.5
1
Hahn et al Everyday Fun
0.5
1
Huber, Miriam Cinder, the Cat
0.5
2
Hardy, Marjorie The New Wag and Puff 1 2
Read, Helen Billy's Letter 1 2
Grandfather's Farm 1 2
LeFevre Cock, M&use> Little Red Hen 1
3
Pitkin Maple Sugar Time 1-2 3-4
Deming The Indians in Winter Camp 2
3
Wella Coco the Goat 2
3
Dopp The Tree Dwellers 2
3
Reed Story about Boats 2
3
Rowe Rabbit Lantern and Other
Stories, Chinese Children 2 4
Beauchamp et al Science Stories, I 2 4
Smith, Jeanette A Summer by the Sea 2
5
Jatakas Jataka Tales Retold
2-3
4
Morcomb Red Feather Stories
2-3
4
Snedden Docas, the Indian Boy
of Santa Clara
2-3
4
Pumphrey Pilgrim Stories, Plays
2-3 5
Everson et al Coming of Dragon Ships
2-3 5
Howard Sokar and the Crocodile
2-3 5
Moon Tita of Mexico
2-3 5
Simon Lost Corner
2-3 5
114
APPENDIX B (continued)
Voca Inter
bulary est
Grade Grade
Author Title level level.
Bronson Pollywiggle's Progress
2-3 5-7
Patch Surprises
2-3 5-7
Aulalre et al Children of the North-
lights
3
4
Dopp The Early Farmer
3
4
The Early Herdsmen
3
4
Balridge et al Bomba Lives in Africa
3
4
Terry History Stories of Other
Lands: II, Tales of Long
Ago
3
4
Warren Little Pioneers
3
4
Curtiss Boats
3 4-5
Quigley et al Poppy Seed Cakes
3 5
Lofting Story of Doctor Doolittle
3 5
Burns Stories of Shepherd Life
3 5
Tousey Cowboy Tommy
3
6
Grey Rolling Wheels
3
6
Moon Chi-Wee: The Adventure
of Little Indian Girl
3
6
Lacey Light, Then and Now
3
6
Olcott Anton and Trini
3
6
Pryor et al Steel Book
3 7
Hill, Maxwell Rudi of the Toll Gate 3-4
5
Hunt Lucinda: Little Girl of
i860 3-4
5
Meigs Willow Whistle 3-4
5
Mukerji Kari, the Elephant 3-4
5
Schram Olaf, Lofoten Fisherman 3-4
5
Erleigh In the Beginning 3-4
5
Mohr Egyptians of Long Ago 3-4
5
Kaigh et al Jungle Babies 3-4
5
Ghosh Wonders of the Jungle 3-4
5
Burglon Children of the Soil 3-4
5
Coatsworth The Boy with the Parrot 3-4 6
Perkins American Twins of 1812 3-4 6
Patch et al Through Four Seasons 3-4 6
Howard The Princess Runs Away 4
4-7
115
APPENDIX B (continued)
Voca Inter
bulary est
grade grade
Author Title level level
Floherty Fire Fighters 4 4-8
Lee Pablo and Patra 4
5
Wiese Chinese Ink Stick 4
5
Wilson Myths of Red Children 4
5
Dalgliesh America Travels 4
5
Lester Great Pictures and Their
Stories: V 4
5
Folger et al Rusty Pete of the
Lazy A B 4
5-7
Pryor et al The Glass Book 4
5-7
Carroll Alice *s Adventures
in Wonderland 4 6
Twain Adventures of Huck Finn 4 6
Adventures of Tom Sawyer 4 6
Dixq Blythe McBride 4 6
James Young Cowboy 4 6
Kipling Jungle Book 4 6
Meader Red Horse Hill 4 6
Kaler Toby Tyler 4 6
Spyri Heidi 4 6
Hibben Carpenter's Tool Chest 4 6
Tietjens Boy of the Desert 4 6
Burgess Flower Book for Children 4 6
Olcott Klaas and Jansje 4
6-7
Bush et al How We Have Conquered Dis. 4 7-8
Dukelow et al The Ship Book 4 7-8
Sperry All Sail Set 4 7-8
Barrie Peter and Wendy
4-5
6
Carr Children of the Covered
Wagon
4-5
6
Hamsum A Norwegian Farm
4-5'
6
Skinner Becky Landers, Frontier
Warrior
4-5
6
Lester Great Pictures and Their
Stories: VI 4-5 6
116
APPENDIX B (continued)
Author Title
Voca
bulary
grade
level
Inter
est
grade
level
Daugherty Mashlnka's Secret
5
6
Hlllyer A Child's History of
the World
5
6
' U n iv e r s ity O f S o u t e ie r n C o iif o rH i a iM m
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A program for helping retarded readers in the intermediate grades.
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(provenance)
Permanent Link (DOI)
https://doi.org/10.25549/usctheses-c24-60841
Unique identifier
UC11268594
Identifier
EP46731.pdf (filename),usctheses-c24-60841 (legacy record id)
Legacy Identifier
EP46731.pdf
Dmrecord
60841
Document Type
Thesis
Format
masters theses (aat)
Rights
Coots, Robert Donald
Type
texts
Source
University of Southern California
(contributing entity),
University of Southern California Dissertations and Theses
(collection)
Access Conditions
The author retains rights to his/her dissertation, thesis or other graduate work according to U.S. copyright law. Electronic access is being provided by the USC Libraries in agreement with the au...
Repository Name
University of Southern California Digital Library
Repository Location
USC Digital Library, University of Southern California, University Park Campus, Los Angeles, California 90089, USA
Tags
education, special